Shelter is one of the basic necessities of man. The problem of lack of adequate access to housing is a concern to individuals and governments worldwide [1]. Flooding is the leading cause of disasters occurring from natural hazards worldwide [2-3]. Digha et al., [4] established that there is a significant relationship between human activities and the ongoing occurrence of floods. Floods cause significant property damage, mass homeless, and, in many cases, loss of life, and are frequently classified as natural disasters [4]. Flooding is responsible for 6.8 million deaths in the 20th century. It brings in its wake, injury, displacement, and death. Between 1995 and 2015, the lives of 2.3 billion people were affected, making floods accountable for 47% of all weather-related disasters globally [5]. Bin and Polasky [6] maintain that Pitt County in North Carolina, between 1992 and 2002 experienced significant flooding from Hurricane Floyd; and more than 90 people died in Mozambique in the Northern Province of Mpumalango due to flooding [7]. In Botswana, more than 34,000 people were displaced, while over 10,000 houses collapsed because of flooding. In western Kenya and Southern Tanzania, 46 deaths were recorded and over 50,000 people are displaced including the destruction of buildings and farmland [7].

In Nigeria, the Ogunpa flood killed 100 people and displaced over 50,000 people in 1986. In Kano, 56 lives were lost in 1988 due to flood events. In May 1988 and 1997 at Patigi, Kpada and Gbgbondogi Local Government Areas of Kwara State, over 70,000 people were left homeless because of flooding [8-9]. While Lagos floods of 1984, 1995, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2006 and 2007, commercial shops: electronics stores, textile, and houses in Victoria Island, Ajegunle Ojota, Mile 2 area, Alaba market were submerged due to flooding [10] and EM-DAT cited the international Emergency Database [11], that floods contaminate water sources and exposing people to the risk of water-borne diseases. Flooding also damages crop and disrupted the planting season [10]. More and more Nigerians are exposed to the risks of flooding and will continue to suffer its impacts [12]. A 2018 report estimated that about 80 percent of Nigerians are at risk for flooding [13]. Indeed, loss of and properties from flooding have become an annual staple in Nigeria, with increasing costs. Ebuzoeme [14] observed that some of the major effects of flooding in six communities in Awka include road congestion, accident, damage of buildings, destruction of properties, health problems, reduction of aesthetic beauty of the environment, increase in poverty level and death. Floods have adversely altered the environment and human activities in Agbor, Delta State. Specifically, Dein street, Baleke street, Imudia Street, Upper Odozi area, Odeh Street, Abude Street, Arimoku Street, Charles Street, Egun Street, DDPA low-cost housing estate, DDPA housing estate’s first, fourth and seventh Avenue in Agbor experiences flooding whenever it rains. This is attributed to anthropogenic activities of the people of Agbor exacerbated by the slope of the nordal town and the lack of adequate drainage to drain off the flood waters to the Orogodo river. Subsequently, residents, commuters, and transporters find it difficult to assess most of the streets in Agbor whenever it rains during the rainy season. When single event floods reoccur for days or weeks, they often produce flood pondages that are found in some areas of Agbor that last for several months. Their appearance and disappearance, according to Areola [8] and Efe [15] last between one to twelve months; This of course exacerbate rate of inundation of houses and family compounds, increase associated water-borne diseases that thrives on accumulated water such as diarrhea, malaria etc. thus, altering the aesthetic view of the area Figure 1.

Figure1: Some flooded Streets in Agbor at Odeh, Arimoku and Egun Streets.

The question that arises from the above context are; Will the current anthropogenic activities increase the frequency and magnitude of flooding in Agbor? Is flood in Agbor caused by the activities of residents alone? Will town planning ameliorate the current suffering of the citizenry? The study sought to find answers to these issues that affect the urban environment in Agbor. 

Study Area 

Boji-Boji Agbor is one of the major towns in Ika South Local Government Area of Delta State. Ika South lies between Latitude 6^°N and Longitude 6^° 25¹ East, while Boji-Boji Agbor lies between Latitude 6^°08¹N and Longitude 6^° 07¹ East. It is bounded in the North by Otta village; Southwest by Owa-ofien; Southeast by Boji-Boji Owa, in the East by Emuhu village and in the West by Alihami village. The town is located on a terrain of 10-30m above sea level and is drained by the Orogodo river.The size of Agbor is approximately 28.12km² and the topography of the area is a “V shape” valley with Orogodo River having its course through the valley. However, due to increasing urbanization the town has greatly extended to areas with relatively flat terrain and the lack of drainage channels in these areas results to constant flooding with the slightest rainfall (Figure 1). The climate of the study area is tropical equatorial. It has a mean maximum rainfall of 2500-3000mm during the raining season and 500-700mm during the dry season. The area has a mean annual temperature of 270C. The raining season spans from April to October while the dry season spans from November to March each year. The predominant wind system in the area is the Tropical Maritime Air Mass (mT). This air mass is moist and humid, thus its ushers in rainfall into the area while the Tropical Continental Air Mass (cT) heralds the dry season, being dry and dusty from the Sahara Desert. This period is popularly called the hamattan. The middle of the rainy season is marked by a short break, usually referred to as “August break”.

The natural vegetation of the area is that of the rain forest. It is made up of evergreen forest and exhibit characteristics of tall trees with thick undergrowth; that is, the formation of thickets and tress canopy is mainly predominant in the area. However, man’s interference in form of population pressure, building development, road construction and subsequent over cultivation in recent times has reduced the forest to secondary bush. Therefore, what remains of the vegetation today could be regarded as depleted secondary forest with only pockets of savannah, scattered cultivation and plantation dominating the vegetation of the area. The excessive rainfall in the area leads to inundation of the environment.

Agbor is a densely populated town in Ika South LGA. The population of Agbor as at 1991 was 45,850 (NPC, 1991) and this increased to 49,401 people in 2006 (NPC, 2006). Agbor had a projected population of 51, 278 [16] and 250,000 in 2022 due to the rapid influx of people as a result of the newly established University of Delta in the area. The increase in population is associated with increase in man’s exploitation of the environment, leading to flooding via unplanned development such as building on a water channel.

Agbor has several types of social-economic activities as a result of her location not only as a nodal town but also a Local Government Headquarter. The area serves as educational center because of the presence of several schools, primary to tertiary, institutions which include the University of Delta, Agbor and the State School of nursing, among others. There are several banks in the area such as Oceanic Bank Plc now (Ecobank), Zenith Bank Plc, UBA, Intercontinental Bank Plc, now (Access Bank) to mention but few that engage in delivery of banking services to the populace, who are mostly commercial traders, commercial transporters (Cars, buses and motorcycles) Okada Riders and agro-allied and small-scale businesses.

The primary activities of the people include subsistence agriculture, rearing of Pigs, Goats and general poultry farms. The secondary activities include tailoring, carpentry, Saw mailing etc. Agbor has few factories, and these include Camel Paints and Chemicals, Bakeries, Sachet Water companies as well as a depot of Coca Cola Nigeria Plc. Most of the socioeconomic activities have been precursors of flooding because they are being carried out on built up areas of the town. This means that surface water has a very high velocity of flow, which has been associated with flooding and erosion in the area. The soil of Agbor consists of a stratum of Benin sand which spread over a veneer of black earth [17]. The soil is now impoverished as a result of human activities and erosion, leaving only the red soil on the outer layer of the earth and this makes percolation difficult, and this is exacerbated by the dumping of refuse on drainage lines on one hand and the total absence of drainage channels on the other hand.

The thrust of this work is to portray the spatial perspective of flooding on housing in the Agbor area of Delta State and to evaluate the impact of flooding on housing as well as the roles socioeconomic activities such as income plays in determining vulnerability to flooding. The research design is based on primary data from field survey and personal observation (ex post facto) accompanied with the administration of questionnaire. Oral interview with household heads was also employed. The primary data were acquired from field data generated through flood measurement and administration of questionnaires. This was complimented with secondary data which include use of information from government agencies such as Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN), National Bureau of Statistics etc. Rainfall data was collected from Nigerian Meteorological Agency (NIMET), Oshodi, Lagos.

A total of five (5) zones [A (Abude Street, Charles Street), B (Odeh Street, Egun Street), C (DDPA housing Estate covering 1st, 4th and 7th Street), D (DDPA low-cost Housing Estate, Jackie Slaughter Road) and E (Dein street, Imudia Street, Festus Aghalor Street)] were sampled. A total number of one thousand (1000) copies of questionnaires were distributed to respondents with two hundred (200) copies distributed to respondents in each of these five zones. The proportion was used as a result of the estimated residential houses on floodable areas and these houses are made up of Mud and Cement Block. To ensure an even distribution of the questionnaire, the researcher used interval of two buildings to one respondent in the distribution of questionnaire, based on systematic sampling procedures. However, flood measurements were carried out in eleven (11) major streets that are mostly prone to flooding with the help of a research assistant using 7.5m (25 feet’s) measuring tape, pegs and markers. One can examine the effects of a single variable or multiple variables without affecting other variables [18,19]. 

Flooding Measurement in Agbor

Table 1 presents the data on flood measurement carried out using 7.5m measuring tape, peg and marker. The measurement was carried out from street to street based on the existing landmark in areas vulnerable to flooding. Table 1 show that the locations with the highest inundated land area are the 7th avenue and the 1st avenue of the DDPA housing estate. This is because the area has nearly a flat terrain and there is complete absence of drainage system in the area. The other areas with low inundated lands are Odeh and Ngbeken streets. This is highly associated with clustering of houses in the area.

Table 1: Flood Lengths, Widths, Depts and Area Covered in Agbor

Source: Authors Analysis

Perceived Factors responsible for flooding

Table 2 show the factors responsible for flooding from the perspective of the residents (respondents) in Agbor. The perceived changes in the rainfall amount over the years as well as residents’ vulnerability and other factors responsible for flooding in the area. Table 2 shows that the factors responsible for the flooding in Abude and Charles Street (80.9%), Odeh and Egun Street (60.8%), DDPA Housing Estate covering First, Fourth and Seventh Street (54.5%), DDPA low-cost housing Estate (55.6%) and Dein, Imudia, and Festus Aghaulor Street (57.7%) is the absence of drainage. On the other hand, 17.7%, 39.1%, 45.5%, 44.4% and 40.1% respectively said lack of tarred road is the causative factor. This is because the earth roads most of often than not develop potholes which serves as water accumulation points and empties itself into the streets once they are filled up during the raining season. The differences in response can be attributed to variations in the level of development in different parts of Agbor town. Basically, drainage which is the chief factor is an infrastructure that goes with the construction of asphalted roads which is none existent in some of the areas. This agrees with earlier work done by Ojeh and Ugboma [20] in Abraka where they blamed the seasonal inundation of the town to absence of drainages in the university town. It is also congruent with Atedhor et al. [21] in their study on changing rainfall and anthropogenic-induced flooding: Impacts and adaptation strategies in Benin City, Nigeria

Table 2: Factors Responsible for flooding in Agbor

Source: Authors Analysis

Perceived Changes in Rainfall Amount over the Years in Agbor

Table 3 shows that 39.5% of respondents in Abude and Charles streets perceived changes in rainfall amount due to climate change, while 60.5% of the respondents in the same streets have perceived changes in rainfall over the years. From the table 3, the 60.5% of respondents perceived changes in rainfall amount and 39.5% disagreed. In Odeh and Egun streets, the respondents also had similar perception, 60.9% and 39.1% respectively. In the remaining areas, the perception on changes in rainfall amount were yes (65.4%) and no (34.6%) in the DDPA housing estate and others in First, Fourth and Seventh avenue agreed (56.3%) and No (43.7%) in DDPA low-cost housing estate and Jackie Slaughter. In Dein, Imudia and Festus Aghalor streets, (50.8%) responded in the affirmative of changes in rainfall while (49.2%) responded in the negative. In general, more residents indicated changes for rainfall in Agbor due to anthropogenic induced factors. 

Table 3: Perceived Changes in Rainfall Amount over the Years

Source: Field work, 2012.

Flood Occurrence in Houses due to Vulnerability:

Table 4 presents data from respondents about flood occurrence and vulnerability in Agbor. Yes, indicates the presence of flooding while no; indicates disagreement Table 4 shows that all the respondents (100%) agreed that flooding is a challenge and of frequent occurrence in Agbor, making the town very vulnerable to it. This attest to the fact that flooding is a menace in the nodal town which currently hosts the University of Delta (Unidel) Agbor and therefore urgent attention is needed to arrest the situation in infrastructure. The result agrees with Ewere and Ojeh [22].

Table 4. Flood Occurrence in Houses due to Vulnerability:

Source: Authors Analysis.

Table 5 shows that, (100%) of the respondents attributed flooding to rainfall. This is evident from 152 (100%) of respondents in Abude and Charles Streets, 161 (100%) of respondents in Odeh and Egun Streets, 185(100%) of in DDPA Housing Estates First, Fourth, and Seventh Avenue,176 (100%) of respondents in DDPA low-cost Housing Estate and 187 (100%) of respondents in Dein, Imudia and Egun Streets.

Table 5: Does weather parameters Influences flooding. 

Source: Authors Analysis

All the respondent attributed rainfall as the weather parameter that influences flooding most in sections of Agbor. Table 6 and Figure 2, Show that flooding occurs only during the raining season. The month of July has the greatest amount of inundation, followed by September and June respectively. In the month of April, there is virtually no occurrence of flooding as the raining season is just taking off. This could be the reason why only 17 respondents said April is associated with flooding. This few may have experienced unusual effects of rainstorm with little inundation that accompanies the onset of rain as shown in the study of Nkeki et al, [23] on flooding across Nigeria.

Table 6: Season and Months Associated with Flooding. 

Source: Authors Analysis

Figure2: Wet Season Months with Highest Flooding Occurrence

Efforts Made to Combat flooding

Table 7 shows the various efforts made by the respondents to combat flooding in their various areas, presented in both frequency and percentage of responses. In Table 7 and Figure 3, it is evident that efforts were made by the residents to combat flooding. 

Table 7: Efforts Made to Combat Flooding in Agbor

Source: Authors Analysis

Figure 3: Strategy for Flood Control (Adaptation)

These efforts include the use of sand bags as barricades in Abude and Charles (13.8%), in Odeh and Egun (16.5%), in DDPA Housing Estates (11%), in DDPA low-cost Housing Estates (7%) and in Dein, Imudia and Festus Aghaulor Streets, (9%). Construction of wooden bridges in Abude and Charles Streets (8%), in Odeh and Egun Sreets (10.5%), in DDPA Housing Estates (7%), in DDPA low-cost Housing Estates (12%) and in Dein, Imudia and Festus Aghaulor Streets (9%) of respondents respectively.

Erecting of block fences of residential buildings; 35%, 31%, 48.6%, 39.2% and 36% of respondents agreed are measures to control flooding. While sand filling of floodable compound 43%, 41.6%, 33.5%, 42% and 46% of respondents. Figure 3 show that sand filling of compounds and raising the height of fence is the most frequently used adaptation strategy to flooding of houses and compounds in Agbor.

The study was on the effects of anthropogenic induced flooding on housing in Agbor as it relates to housing quality. The finding of the study showed that flooding is induced by anthropogenic factors, which has led to a shortage of housing. Although residents made efforts to control flooding, it is not enough for the peaceful co-existence of the Agbor residence. In the light of the findings of the study, the following recommendations.

The Federal Government through the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA), Niger Delta Affairs Ministry, Policy Makers and stakeholders should revisit and review existing environmental policies and laws in Nigeria to encourage strict adherence to project development laws that govern urban development should be enforced. People should evacuate from floodable plains to the upland areas. Drainage networks should be constructed to link the various streets in Agbor and channel to Orogodo Rivers.

Acknowledgement/ Conflict of Interest

The author acknowledges the research assistant and Nimet. Furthermore, there is no conflict of interest to publish this work.

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