Oilseeds occupy a key place in the agricultural economy of India, constituting an important group of crops next to cereals. India accounts for 75% of area (5.50 m ha), contributing to about 75% (6.61 m ha) production with productivity of 1,182 kg/ha (Statistics, 2010). India has been cultivating almost all oilseed crops, mainly are groundnut soybean, rapeseed-mustard, sunflower, castor, sesame, safflower, niger and linseed. Among the 9 oilseeds crops in India, highest average area is under soybean (36%) followed by rapeseed-mustard (23%) and groundnut (22%), similarly total production of oilseeds is highest in soybean and followed by groundnut. 

The oilseeds crops are good alternative to vegetable oils as these are rich in protein content. The seed of mustard is used as a condiment in the preparation of pickles and the flavouring curries and vegetables. Oilseeds crops are characterized as one of the major sources of biodiesel production in the petroleum industry. In the past few years, the non-edible oilseeds crops are used as producers of biofuels [1]. In the tanning industry, mustard oil is used for softening leather. There are various agronomic factors that influence the seed yield of crops. The planting methods and spacing which are relatively important inputs affect the vegetative and reproductive growth thus the crop yield.

Effect Of Planting Methods on Oilseed Crops

Selection of proper planting methods are significantly important to save water in arid and semi-arid regions. Several approaches are proposed in this way to reduce water consumption and increase water use efficiency. Raised bed planting system is a water efficient technology for dryland areas where water is a top priority. In beds water is applied in furrows, small quantities of water can be applied over the large area and based on the soil type water saving ranges from 20 to 40% [2]. The raised bed planting is the practice that helps in reducing the water losses and utilizing more conserved soil moisture. This practice facilitates seed germination, proliferation of root growth, helps in reducing the mechanical resistance to the plant roots, encourages crop growth, prevents water stagnation after irrigation and reduces irrigation requirement of crops. Moreno et al. [3] reported that raised bed planting has higher water productivity, better utilization of solar radiation and weed competition efficiency. There is 35% saving in irrigation water and 31% Increase in water use efficiency in raised bed planting. During extreme rainfall conditions crops are affected by water logging problems due to improper drainage. Ridges helps in conserves the rain water in furrows, provides proper aeration in the root zone, reduces reduces the runoff and erosion of soil. Malik et al. [4] conducted a field experiment on different nitrogen levels and planting methods (single row flat sowing, paired row planting, ridge sowing and bed planting) in sesame crop. The results revealed that maximum yield and seed oil content was obtained in bed sowing. They also reported that sowing sesame on beds gave highest number of capsules per plant may be due to plants on beds utilized suitable spacing for light penetration by reduced competition among plants. 

Ram et al. [5] carried out a field experiment by different planting methods like raised bed planting (67.5cm wide, 2 rows), raised broad bed planting (135cm wide,4 rows), ridge- furrow sowing (60 cm spacing) and flat sowing (45 cm spacing) in soybean. Highest PARI (Photosynthetic Active Radiation Interception) and net returns were recorded in raised bed planting. They also concluded that raised bed planting recorded maximum water productivity than flat and ridge sowing.  Patil et al., 2007 compared the broad bed furrow, ridge and furrow and flat methods in groundnut cultivation and observed that broad bed furrows with 30x10cm had proved to be beneficial in getting higher productivity.

Jamil et al. [6] studied the effect of different sowing methods (ridges, drill and broadcasting) in castor under salt affected areas. The maximum plant height, seed weight and seed yield were observed in ridge planting. Khambalkar et al. [7] showed higher yield in safflower with broadbed furrow system with lesser operational cost than traditional method of sowing in Akola, Maharashtra.

Aslam et al. [8] conducted a field experiment on different planting methods (flat sowing 45cm apart, ridge sowing 45 cm apart and bed sowing 60/30cm) in sesame. Highest grain yield was obtained in bed planting followed by ridges, lowest was seen in flat sowing. They concluded that maximum wilting in plants was under flat sowing, however the plants on beds and ridges successfully avoided the water logging conditions.

Shahid et al. [9] observed the influence of irrigation levels with different planting methods (60 cm apart single rows on flat and ridges) in sun flower. The results showed that planting methods and irrigation levels affected the productivity of sunflower. Sunflower on ridges has more plant height, number of achenes per head thus seed yield than flat sowing method. 

Dhakad et al. [10] observed higher yield in soybean crop under ridge and furrow system compared to normal flat sowing. Sathya studied the impact of different planting methods (flat bed, board bed and furrow, ridges and furrow, raised bed and furrow) and with organic mulch (paddy straw) and plastic mulch in groundnut. The results showed that maximum yield attributes were found in raised bed and furrow along with plastic mulch in rainfed conditions. Basediya et al. [11] carried out a field experiment to study the effect of ridge and furrow system in soybean crop. The results revealed that plant height, plant population, root length and seed yield were maximum in ridge and furrow planting as compared to flat sowing. Mvumi et al. [12] observed that planting of groundnut on ridges had more number of leaves, pods plant-1and grain yield as compared to flat sowing. Singh et al. [13] conducted a field experiment on different planting methods, irrigation levels and mulching on growth and yield of yellow sarson and found higher plant height, water use efficiency, total dry matter, seed and stover yield in the raised bed planting.        Magagula et al. [14] concluded that groundnuts at raised beds with low plant density yielded higher than those at ridges with high plant density.

Effect of Spacing on Different Oilseed Crops

Spacing determines the uniform distribution of plants in the field. It directly affects the interception of solar radiation by plants and indirectly affects WUE. Borger et al. [15] reported that by manipulating the row spacing the crop canopy can be increased by reducing the light interception to weeds. Ali et al. [16] conducted a field experiment on different row spacing (45cm, 60 cm,75cm) and plant spacings (10,20,30 cm) in sunflower. The results revealed that maximum achene yield and oil content was obtained at 60×20 cm spacing. They concluded that spacing also influenced the seed and oil content in sunflower.

Arif et al. [17] carried out a field experiment on three different plant spacing (5,10 and 15 cm) and three different rows spacing (10,20,30 cm) in white mustard. Results revealed that seed yield increased with the increasing number of pods per plant in 10x15cm spacing or 20x15 cm spacing. Malik et al. [4] carried out a field experiment on different row spacing (30,45,60 cm) and results revealed that maximum yield was obtained in 30cm row spacing. Mulvaney et al. [18] revealed that no effect of spacing and seed rate on oil concentration. Whereas, spacing affected the seed and oil yield. The highest yield was obtained in 36cm spacing followed by 18,53 and 89 cm. They concluded that row spacing significantly influenced the seed and oil yield of Brassica carinata.

Kaur et al. [19] conducted a field experiment during rabi season at Ludhiana, Punjab to study the effect of N and four different spacings on different genotypes of Ethiopian mustard. The results revealed that high seed and stover yield is obtained in 25×15cm spacing with more N content and protein content in seed. Tewari and Singh [20] observed the effect of three different spacing and S levels on growth and yield of spring sunflower. The results revealed that maximum yield, oil content and oil yield are found in 45×30 cm spacing. 

Planting methods resolve the issues of crop establishment, water saving, weed competition and proper drainage when crops are sown on beds or ridges.  Seed yield and oil content of oil seed crops can be increased by choosing appropriate planting method and spacing. Spacing helps to utilize the natural resources in better and more efficient way. Therefore, it is crucial to manoeuvre the methods of sowing and spacing among plants for getting higher productivity and economical use of precious resources.

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2. Tripathi, S.C. and A.Das. “Bed planting for resource conservation, diversification and sustainability of wheat-based cropping system.” Journal of Wheat Research, vol. 9, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1–11.

3. Moreno, O. et al. Tecnologia para la Produccion de Trigo en Surcos. Foll. Tecn. 22, SARH, INIFAP, 1993.

4. Malik, M.A. et al. “Effect of various planting geometries on growth, seed yield and oil content of new sunflower hybrid (SF-187).” International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, vol. 3, no. 1, 2001, pp. 55–56.

5. Ram, H. et al. “Soybean (glycine max) growth, productivity and water use under different sowing methods and seeding rates in Punjab.” Indian Journal of Agronomy, vol. 56, no. 4, 2011, pp. 377–380.

6. Jamil, M. et al. “Impact of sowing techniques and nitrogen fertilization on castor bean yield in salt affected soils.” The Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, vol. 27, no. 2, 2017, pp. 451–456.

7. Khambalkar, V.P. et al. “Mechanical Sowing of Safflower on Broad Bed Furrow.” Australian Journal of Agricultural Engineering, vol. 1, no. 5, 2010, pp. 184.

8. Aslam, M. et al. “Role of different planting techniques in improving the water-logging tolerance and productivity of sesame (sesamum indicum L.).” Bangladesh Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, vol. 50, no. 3, 2015, pp. 193–198.

9. Shahid, M. et al. “Irrigation management in spring planted sunflower (helianthus annuus l.) sown with different planting methods.” Korean Journal of International Agriculture, vol. 24, no. 1, 2012, pp. 65–69.

10. Dhakad, S.S. et al. “Effect of ridge and furrow system on the growth character and yield in rainfed soybean in Madhya Pradesh.” Indian Journal of Ecology, vol. 42, no. 1, 2014, pp. 230–232.

11. Basediya, A.L. et al. “Study the effect of ridge and furrow system on soybean cultivation in Shivpuri district of Madhya Pradesh.” International Archive of Applied Sciences and Technology, vol. 1, 2016, pp. 111–115.

12. Mvumi, C. et al. “The effects of planting methods on growth and yield of groundnut (arachis hypogaea) cultivar natal common in Africa South of the Sahara.” 2018.

13. Singh, S.D. and M.Yusuf. “Effect of water, nitrogen and row spacing on yield and oil content of brown sarson.” Canadian Journal of Plant Science, vol. 59, no. 2, 1979, pp. 437–444.

14. Magagula, N. et al. “Effects of plant density and planting pattern on growth and seed yield of groundnuts (arachis hypogaea) in the wet middleveld of Eswatini.” Asian Plant Research Journal, 2019, pp. 1–12.

15. Borger, C.P. et al. “Manipulating crop row orientation to suppress weeds and increase crop yield.” Weed Science, vol. 58, 2010, pp. 174–178.

16. Ali, A. et al. “Effect of varying planting pattern on growth, achene yield and oil contents of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.).” Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, vol. 44, 2007, pp. 449–452.

17. Arif, M. et al. “Inter and intra row spacing effects on growth, seed yield and oil contents of white mustard (sinapis alba l.) under rainfed conditions.” Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, vol. 49, no. 1, 2012, pp. 21–25.

18. Mulvaney, M.J. et al. “Brassica carinata seeding rate and row spacing effects on morphology, yield, and oil.” Agronomy Journal, vol. 111, no. 2, 2019, pp. 528–535.

19. Kaur, H. et al. “Effect of crop geometry and nitrogen on nitrogen uptake, protein yield, oil yield and oil quality of determinate and short-statured genotypes of Ethiopian mustard (Brassica carinata).” Indian Journal of Agronomy, vol. 64, no. 1, 2019, pp. 155–162.

20. Tewari, S.K. and S.S.Singh. “Effect of sources and levels of sulphur and spacing on growth, yield and quality of spring sunflower (Helianthus annuus).” Indian Journal of Agronomy, vol. 56, no. 3, 2011, pp. 242–246.