Female protagonists in African women’s literature have contributed substantially to revealing women’s multifaceted experiences on the continent. These literary works provide a rich tapestry of narratives that explore the complexities of gender, culture, and identity. However, examining these narratives through a socioeconomic lens is equally crucial to uncover the interplay between class struggle, exploitation, and economic disparity and how these factors shape the protagonists’ choices, opportunities, and agency. In this comparative analysis, we delve into the worlds of Nnu Ego, Adah, Aku-nna, and Efuru, four prominent female protagonists in African women’s literature. We employ Marxist theory to analyze the socioeconomic contexts depicted in their respective novels.

This comparative analysis aims to emphasize the similarities and differences in the socioeconomic contexts presented in the works and draw attention to how the protagonists navigate their social environments. By contextualizing their experiences within the broader framework of class struggle, exploitation, and economic disparity, we gain a deeper understanding of the complexities of their lives and the social landscapes in which they exist.

Through an exploration of Nnu Ego in The Joys of Motherhood, Adah in Second Class Citizen, Aku-nna in The Bride Price, all written by Buchi Emecheta, as well as Efuru in Efuru by Flora Nwapa, we analyze the socioeconomic implications and the resulting challenges and opportunities faced by these female protagonists. We will examine how their socioeconomic positions shape their choices, relationships, and aspirations and how they navigate the societal constraints imposed upon them.

By critically engaging with these texts through a Marxist lens, we hope to deepen our understanding of the socioeconomically grounded themes present in African women’s literature. Through this exploration, we aim to contribute to the ongoing discourse surrounding the intricate interplay between socioeconomic contexts and the experiences of female protagonists in African literary narratives.

In the subsequent sections, we will provide a brief overview of the selected novels, followed by an analysis of the socioeconomic contexts depicted within each work. We will then explore class struggle, exploitation, and economic disparity and examine the profound impact of these factors on the choices and opportunities of Nnu Ego, Adah, Aku-nna, and Efuru.

Statement of the problem

Most often, African women protagonists in literature are in socioeconomic contexts marked by poverty, exploitation, and limited opportunities. Despite their significant presence in African women’s literature, the comprehensive analysis of these contexts remains inadequate. As representative characters, Nnu Ego, Adah, Aku-nna, and Efuru are within such oppressive socioeconomic circumstances, where their choices, opportunities, and agency are profoundly affected. It is essential to delve deeper into the complex interplay between socioeconomic factors and the lives of these protagonists to understand their struggles and aspirations.

By examining the themes of class struggle, exploitation, and economic disparity, this study sheds light on the harsh realities and socioeconomic challenges these women face. They are trapped in oppression that perpetuates their exploitation and denies them the ability to shape their lives. It is for this reason that this analysis aims to expose the intricate dynamics at play, examining the stark contrasts between their poor social plight and their unwavering desire for freedom, autonomy, and social change.

Thus, through a comprehensive exploration of these narratives, this article aims to provide a nuanced understanding of the experiences of Nnu Ego, Adah, Aku-nna, and Efuru within their respective societies. Indeed, by critically examining their impoverished conditions, the exploitative systems they confront, and their persistent efforts to break free from these oppressive constraints, this study sheds light on their resilience, agency, and the transformative power of their narratives. 

Justification of the study

This study stands on the urgent need to discuss female protagonists’ socioeconomic realities and experiences in African women’s literature. Despite the increasing recognition of African women writers and their narratives, there need to be more comprehensive analyses of the socioeconomic contexts depicted in their works. The voices and experiences of these female characters, such as Nnu Ego, Adah, Aku-nna, and Efuru, have often been marginalized and overlooked, reinforcing the systemic erasure of African women’s perspectives in literature.

This study addresses this scholarly neglect by critically examining the themes of class struggle, exploitation, and economic disparity. It contributes to a deeper understanding of these protagonists’ social and economic challenges. Their experiences reflect the harsh realities of countless African women trapped in cycles of poverty, exploitation, and limited opportunities.

Moreover, this research intends to offer a nuanced understanding of the socioeconomic factors that shape these female characters’ choices, opportunities, and agency, dissect the intricate power dynamics, and reveal the profound impact of socioeconomic disparities on their lives. Through this analysis, we seek to amplify their voices and illuminate the structural injustices that hinder their personal and societal growth.

Furthermore, the objective is to underscore the importance of diverse narratives and perspectives in African women’s literature. Then, by critically examining the socioeconomic contexts in which these characters exist, we challenge the prevailing narrative that often reduces African women to one-dimensional and victimized figures. Instead, we aim to celebrate their resilience, agency, and determination to challenge oppressive systems and transform their own lives.

Ultimately, this research has the potential to inspire and provoke meaningful conversations about gender, class, and agency in African literature. By highlighting these female protagonists' socioeconomically grounded themes and experiences, we contribute to a more inclusive and comprehensive understanding of African women's literature and promote the recognition and appreciation of their stories globally.

Hypothesis

This study tests the following hypothesis: The socioeconomic positions of the female protagonists in African women’s literature, when analyzed through the lens of Marxist theory, expect to influence their choices, opportunities, and agency significantly, reflecting the impact of class struggle, exploitation, and economic disparity on their lives.

Scope of the study

This comparative analysis encompasses four seminal African women’s literature novels written between the 1960s and 1980s. The selected books include Buchi Emecheta’s The Joys of Motherhood (1979) and Second Class Citizen (1974) [1,2], as well Emecheta’s The Bride Price (1976) and Flora Nwapa’s Efuru (1966).[3,4].

Within Nigeria’s socio political landscape during this period, marked by decolonization and post-independence struggles, this study examines the interplay of socioeconomic factors, class struggle, exploitation, and economic disparity in the lives of the female protagonists. It situates the narratives within the backdrop of Nigeria’s political transition, including the civil war (1967-1970), the oil boom, and subsequent economic challenges.

By exploring the socioeconomic contexts of each novel, this study seeks to elucidate the social, political, and economic circumstances that shape the characters’ lives. The analysis delves into the portrayal of the impact of colonial legacies and the systemic exploitation women face within a society undergoing significant transformation.

Furthermore, the study contextualizes the works within the broader African women’s literary tradition, highlighting the contributions of Buchi Emecheta and Flora Nwapa as pioneering voices in depicting the struggles, resilience, and aspirations of African women. The analysis of these novels offers valuable insights into the intricate interplay between socioeconomic factors, class dynamics, and the struggles female protagonists face in Nigeria’s transformative period. By focusing on women’s socio economic struggles rather than gender roles, this study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the complexities and challenges experienced by these characters amidst the sociopolitical changes in Nigerian history.

Theoretical Framework

The Marxist theory provides a relevant framework for analyzing female protagonists in African women’s literature. Indeed, according to Wlodzimierz Wesolowski, “In classical theories of ‘ruling classes,’ as, for example, in Marx or Mosca, the social classes are the basic groups in the structure of power. According to those theories, one class has power, and another does not. The power of one class is its power over another, no matter what the political or legal of the government.” [5]. Understandingly, applying Marxist theory to exploring female protagonists in African women’s literature allows us to uncover the underlying economic, social, and political forces that shape their experiences. Paraphrasing Nancy Fraser, Marxist theory unveils the hidden workings of power and domination in society, emphasizing the role of class struggle in shaping social relationships. [6]

Thus, from a Marxist lens, we can examine the economic exploitation faced by the female protagonists, including Nnu Ego, Adah, Aku-nna, and Efuru. As noted by Patricia Hill Collins [7], “Feminism advocates women’s emancipation and empowerment, Marxism social thought aims for a more equitable society… In a transnational, postcolonial context, women within new and often Black-run on nation-states in the Caribbean, Africa, and Asia struggle with new meanings attached to ethnicity, citizenship status, and religion”) (P.H. 9) In other words, Marxist theory reveals how women, particularly those from marginalized communities, are economically marginalized, denied access to resources, and subjected to various forms of exploitation. By applying Marxist theory, we can examine how economic exploitation intersects power dynamics, offering insights into the complex layers of oppression these characters navigate.

For this reason, Marxist theory offers a valuable perspective on resistance and social change within the narratives of African women’s literature. By analyzing the protagonists’ agency and resistance strategies, we can identify moments of subversion and the potential for broader social transformation. The Marxist theory allows us to recognize the power of solidarity and collective organizing in challenging oppressive structures.

This article aims to deepen our understanding of the female protagonists in African women’s literature. It provides a means to explore the economic exploitation they face, the intersections of oppression they navigate, and the potential for resistance and social change within their stories. Through this analysis, we can gain valuable insights into the experiences and agency of these female characters, ultimately contributing to a broader understanding of African women’s literature and its socio-political implications.

This article utilizes Marxist theory as the primary theoretical framework to gain a comprehensive understanding of the female protagonists. This analysis involves examining their socio-economic backgrounds, relationships with other characters, and how they navigate power structures within their societies. Moreover, Marxist theory, as a tool, helps identify instances of economic exploitation, class dynamics, and the intersections of gender and race present in the authors’ narratives. This approach provides a deeper insight into the experiences of these female characters.

We collected relevant textual evidence from the selected literary works to support the analysis. This evidence may include direct quotes, descriptions of characters’ social and economic circumstances, and their interactions with others. By analyzing this collected data through a Marxist lens, we focus specifically on the economic, social, and political aspects of the characters’ experiences. This data-driven approach provides a solid foundation for drawing meaningful conclusions. This step comprehensively explains the female protagonists’ roles and challenges in African women’s literature.

The final stages of our research engage in a critical discussion of the findings. This discussion examines the implications of Marxist analysis on the understanding of female protagonists in African women’s literature. In conclusion, this article contributes to the existing body of knowledge on African women’s literature and provides valuable insights into the portrayal of female protagonists.

Commenting on the women’s plight, Aidoo, at the Second African Writers’ Conference in Stockholm (1986), says: “On our continent, millions of women and girls have been, and are being, prevented from realizing their full potential as human beings, whether it be the possibility of being writers and artists, doctors and other professionals, athletes or anything else outside the traditional roles assigned to women.” [8]. Her words shed light on the systemic barriers and prejudices that have hindered countless women from realizing their full potential as human beings. Aidoo eloquently articulates the suppression of women’s aspirations beyond the confines of traditional gender roles.

Aidoo highlights the critical need for societal trans (Azodo) formation by acknowledging the widespread denial of opportunities. The struggle for gender equality becomes evident in her words, as she emphasizes the denied possibilities of women pursuing careers as writers, artists, doctors, athletes, and other professionals. Her comment serves as a call to action for the recognition and empowerment of women in diverse fields and underscores the urgent necessity of dismantling patriarchal norms.

Ada Uzoamaka Azodo emphasizes that Buchi Emecheta and Flora Nwapa are notable authors who skillfully explore the socio-economic challenges faced by women. Although authors such as Julia Kristeva, Susan Gardener, Virginia Woolf, Toril Moi, and Simone de Beauvoir have extensively addressed the topic, Emecheta, and Nwapa’s works remain relevant and insightful. However, while Ada Uzoamaka’s analysis provides a strong basis for understanding the marginalization of women in contemporary African societies, it falls short of challenging the Marxist-socioeconomic perspective of their development.

In his Comparative Analysis of Emecheta’s Second Class Citizen and Nwapa’s Efuru, Harri Gurus employs feminism as the foundation to substantiate the findings of his comparative study, revealing a society dominated by men. Throughout his analysis, limited attention is given to women, resulting in oppression, suppression, subjugation, and neglect. Thus, while Harri Gurus highlights the women’s emancipation struggle, he contends that men have deliberately established a male-dominant society, subjugating women through sex role stereotyping. However, his oversight lies in not elucidating how the socioeconomic achievements of women illustrate their profound determination to challenge colonial societal norms.

In The Dilemma of African Women in Flora Nwapa and Buchi Emecheta’s Novels, Nèma DIAKITE delves into the oppressive patriarchal system experienced by African women and their fervent desire to break free from cultural constraints and assert their presence in a post-colonial society. Over centuries, women have endured various forms of abuse, with the patriarchal society rendering them voiceless and relegating them to the shadows of men from childhood to marriage. As a result, women find themselves socially stratified as inferior to men. In response, Flora Nwapa and Buchi Emecheta shed light on the oppressive nature of patriarchy in traditional African society while empowering women by portraying them in more substantial roles previously reserved for men. 

However, while our study primarily focuses on Nnu Ego in The Joys of Motherhood, Adah in Second Class Citizen, Aku-nna in The Bride Price by Buchi Emecheta, and Efuru in Efuru by Flora Nwapa, Nèma’s analysis primarily utilizes The Joys of Motherhood and Efuru, employing the framework of African feminism to explore the impact of the patriarchal system and the evolving status of women in post-colonial Nigeria.

This literature review uncovers a significant gap in understanding female characters and their journey toward social, economic, and political emancipation. The existing body of literature primarily approaches this issue from a gender feminism perspective, which, unfortunately, restricts a comprehensive analysis of women and their endeavors for emancipation in both colonial and postcolonial Africa. As a result, a more holistic examination of the complexities surrounding the female experience still needs to be improved.

1. Socio-Economic Backgrounds and Challenges

Nnu Ego, the protagonist in The Joys of Motherhood, comes from a rural Nigerian village and belongs to a lower socio-economic stratum. She migrates to the bustling city of Lagos, seeking a better life but faces financial hardships due to the demands of motherhood and societal expectations. The novel underlines Nnu Ego’s struggle as she grapples with poverty and the relentless pursuit of material success to fulfill her maternal duties. Indeed, Buchi Emecheta writes: 

“Their poverty was becoming very apparent and Oshia was constantly hungry. He was lucky if he had a good meal a day. His mother had not been able to go out to evening market since the birth of his brother, so sho would make a display stand outside the house, with cans of cigarettes, boxes of matches and bottles of kerosene, and osk Oshia to sit beside them. If there were any customers, he would shout for an adult to sort out the intricacies of change and money.” [1]. 

This passage highlights the stark reality of poverty and its impact on a young boy named Oshia. The portrayal of poverty becomes evident through Oshia’s constant hunger and his family's struggle to make ends meet. The fact that he considers himself lucky if he gets a good meal a day speaks to the severity of their economic hardship. It provides a glimpse into the daily struggles faced by Nnu Ego living in impoverished conditions, where even basic necessities like regular meals can be a luxury.

In addition, the description of Oshia’s mother unable to go out to the evening market due to the birth of his brother reflects the economic limitations faced by many women in traditional societies. With the responsibility of caring for a newborn, she cannot engage in income-generating activities outside the home. In response to this situation, she sets up a makeshift display stand outside their house to sell small items like cigarettes, matches, and kerosene. This improvised attempt at earning some income signifies her resourcefulness and resilience of facing poverty.

Similarly, in Second Class Citizen, Adah, an ambitious and determined young woman, faces economic challenges in her quest for personal and financial independence. She migrates from Nigeria to London, seeking better opportunities. However, she struggles to secure stable employment and must navigate exploitative working conditions to make ends meet. Adah’s economic plight is evident in her internal thoughts: 

“Francis went to work for two weeks. Adah felt guilty about this. She knew her man ought to out to work for their living, but in her own particular family she had been doing all the work. It seemed to her that she was failing, by staying at home and letting Francis go out and work in  that terrible winter. Francis would worsen the effect when he came home, telling her how difficult it was to work as a postman in England during Christmas.” (Emecheta, Second-Class Citizen)

Here, Emecheta delves into the complex dynamics of gender roles and economic responsibilities within the relationship of Adah and Francis. Adah’s feelings of guilt stem from societal expectations and traditional gender norms that dictate men should be the primary breadwinners. However, the situation is complicated by the fact that Adah has been assuming the role of providing for their living while Francis remained unemployed.

Furthermore, Adah’s internal struggle reflects the conflicting pressures women often face when they find themselves in a position of economic responsibility. Despite taking on the role of providing for their family, they might still feel the weight of societal expectations to conform to traditional gender roles. Adah’s sense of failure is rooted in the perception that she should be the one staying at home while Francis works. Thus, Adah’s socio-economic background as an immigrant woman further exacerbates her vulnerability to exploitation, reflecting the intersection of gender and economic factors as she navigates economic uncertainties in her pursuit of financial stability and the impact this can have on her personal relationships and self-esteem.

Aku-nna’s socio-economic background is that of a rural Igbo village in Nigeria. Her family faces economic constraints and eventually decides to marry her off to the highest bidder for a bride price. Indeed, “Aku-nna was going to marry a rich man and raise the entire Odia family from poverty to wealth.” (Emecheta, The Bride Price) Through this passage, Emecheta shows the societal expectation that marriage to a wealthy man can uplift an entire family from poverty to wealth. In the context presented, Aku-nna’s potential marriage is seen as a means of economic advancement for her family, specifically the Odia family. This perspective reflects a prevailing belief that women’s marriages are often viewed as economic transactions, wherein the bride’s family seeks financial improvement by securing a prosperous match for their daughter.

As a consequence, such a situation can have detrimental effects on women, as it reinforces the notion that their primary value lies in their ability to secure economic security for their families through marriage. This viewpoint can lead to women being objectified and reduced to mere instruments for economic gain, disregarding their individual desires, aspirations, and agency.

In Efuru, the main character Efuru defies traditional expectations in her community. She is a successful trader and a respected member of her society. Indeed, Flora Nwapa writes: “Efuru was her name. She was a remarkable woman. It was not only that she came from a distinguished family. She distinguished herself. Her husband was not known and people wondered why she married him.” (Nwapa, Efuru) By describing Efuru as distinguished in her own right, the author challenges the traditional notion that a woman’s worth is solely defined by her association with her family or husband. This reinforces the idea that women can and should be recognized for their personal achievements and abilities, independent of their familial or marital connections.

The mention of Efuru’s mysterious husband sparks curiosity among people in the community. This curiosity underscores the prevalent societal expectation that women’s choices in marriage should be governed by certain criteria, such as the husband’s status or public reputation. The fact that Efuru’s husband is not well-known suggests that she may have made her own choice in marriage, regardless of his public recognition. This serves to challenge societal norms that dictate women should primarily seek marital partners for reasons of social status or financial gain.

But, despite her economic independence, Efuru still faces societal pressures to conform to conventional norms. Indeed, when Nwapa adds: “Efuru has run away to a young man…Efuru has brought shame on us” (Nwapa, Efuru) the author implies that Efuru’s decision to be with a young man is seen as a deviation from societal norms. The use of the words “run away” carries a negative connotation, suggesting that her actions are seen as rebellious or improper. This portrayal reflects the double standards that women often face, where their pursuit of personal happiness or fulfillment outside of societal expectations can be met with judgment and disapproval.

In addition, the statement “Efuru has brought shame on us” further reinforces the notion that Efuru’s choices are perceived as a reflection not only on herself but also on her community or family. This pressure to uphold the reputation and honor of her social circle illustrates the burden placed on women to conform to societal expectations, regardless of their individual desires or aspirations.

1. The Fight for Economic Independence

The first step towards economic independence for these female characters lies in their determination to gain education and seek employment. In Second Class Citizen, Adah’s strong-willed resolve to pursue education despite societal expectations showcases her desire for self-improvement. Even when she finished her first four years of schooling at ‘Methodist Girls’ School’, “She had some vague plans about what she was going to do; she was going to continue her education, she was going to go to Ibadan University to read classics and she was going to teach at the end of it all” (Emecheta, Second Class Citizen, 19). Adah’s pursuit of education becomes a form of resistance against patriarchal norms, challenging the notion that women’s role is confined to domesticity. Similarly, Aku-nna in The Bride Price yearns for an education, seeing it as a pathway to liberation. She envisions a different life after the death of her father. Indeed, the Emecheta writes: “Poor Mother, Aku-nna thought. She would have to work hard at school so she could be a teacher” (Emecheta, The Bride Price, 66). These women’s relentless pursuit of education highlights their awareness of its transformative potential in securing economic empowerment.

The second aspect of their struggle for economic independence lies in their efforts to secure employment and financial autonomy. In The Joys of Motherhood, Nnu Ego’s journey takes her to urban centers where she strives to find work and supplement her family’s income. As a market woman, she faces exploitative conditions, with long hours and meager pay, mirroring the economic struggles of many working-class individuals. Buchi Emecheta depicts the challenges faced by Nnu Ego, emphasizing the inequalities embedded within economic systems that disadvantage women. Indeed, “In Lagos, a wife would not have time. She had to work. She provided the food from her husband's meagre housekeeping money, but finding the money for clothes, for any kind of comforts, in sme cases for the children’s school fees, was on her shoulders.” [1]. Similarly, Efuru, in Flora Nwapa’s novel, establishes herself as a successful trader in the marketplace, demonstrating her determination to achieve financial independence. Efuru’s entrepreneurial spirit showcases her refusal to be confined by traditional gender roles and reflects a desire to challenge the economic constraints imposed on women.

Despite their efforts, these female protagonists encounter numerous obstacles in their path to economic growth. Patriarchal economic structures attempt to subjugate their aspirations and relegate them to subservient roles. For example, Aku-nna faces opposition from her own family when they force her into an arranged marriage, restricting her opportunities for education and personal growth. Indeed, before he dies, Aku-anna's father says: “Always remember that you are mine,” [2]. Here, the societal pressure to conform to gender roles obstructs her pursuit of economic independence. Similarly, Nnu Ego’s journey is plagued by colonial and cultural forces, forcing her to prioritize motherhood over individual economic aspirations. These instances underscore the systemic barriers that female protagonists confront, further highlighting the need for resistance against oppressive economic structures.

In their pursuit of economic independence, these women exhibit resilience and resistance against patriarchal norms. Despite facing societal pressures and economic hardships, they persist in their endeavors. Nnu Ego, even in the face of overwhelming challenges, tenaciously strives to provide for her family. Efuru refuses to be confined by traditional expectations and instead challenges her community’s beliefs by pursuing economic success as an independent trader. These acts of resistance showcase the strength and determination of these female protagonists to transcend their societal pervasive norms and seize control of their economic destinies.

1. Colonial and Postcolonial Contexts: Economic Implications

In the colonial setting, economic opportunities for African women were severely constrained, reflecting the oppressive nature of colonial rule. Nnu Ego, in The Joys of Motherhood, experiences the economic consequences of British colonialism in Nigeria. Her life in the rural village is marked by subsistence farming and limited access to education and resources. The British colonial system perpetuates inequalities and denies African women access to economic avenues. With the advent of colonial capitalism, traditional practices and economic systems are disrupted, and women are often marginalized in the emerging cash economy. Nnu Ego’s struggle to find economic stability reflects the impact of colonial exploitation on African communities, particularly women who bear the brunt of economic hardships.

The postcolonial era brings about some changes in economic dynamics, offering both opportunities and challenges for the female protagonists. For Adah in Second Class Citizen, the transition to postcolonial Nigeria presents a chance to pursue education and secure a job. However, the legacies of colonialism persist, as she faces racial discrimination and economic exploitation as a Nigerian immigrant in England. The newfound independence of African nations also brings political and economic instability, which adversely affects women’s economic prospects. 

Aku-nna in The Bride Price grapples with the consequences of postcolonial modernity, as traditional customs clash with modern economic realities. The increasing influence of global capitalism creates disparities between urban and rural areas, leaving women like Aku-nna vulnerable to economic exploitation and limited opportunities.

Historical contexts heavily influence the characters’ economic struggles, shaping their perceptions of self-worth and societal expectations. Colonialism’s impact on economic structures has lasting effects on the female protagonists’ lives. The legacy of British colonialism perpetuates a patriarchal society, where women are relegated to subordinate roles, restricting their access to education, property, and economic agency. In contrast, postcolonial challenges emerge in the form of corrupt governance, economic inequality, and cultural tensions. These historical burdens create complex intersections of gender, class, and race that dictate the characters’ economic destinies.

Despite the adversities, the female protagonists exhibit resilience in the face of economic exploitation and colonial legacies. Nnu Ego’s determination to provide for her family and uplift her children embodies the resilience of African women amidst colonial pressures. Adah’s perseverance in the face of racial discrimination highlights the strength of character forged in the crucible of postcolonial struggles. Aku-nna’s defiance of traditional gender roles shows her courage to challenge societal norms and seek economic independence. Efuru’s entrepreneurial spirit, despite the constraints of tradition, demonstrates the indomitable will of African women to thrive economically in both colonial and postcolonial contexts.

In conclusion, the stories of Nnu Ego, Adah, Aku-nna, and Efuru stand as testaments to the resilience and strength of African women in their pursuit of economic independence. By employing a Marxist theoretical framework, we gain deeper insights into the gendered dynamics of economic structures and the ways in which historical contexts shape women's economic struggles. These narratives carry profound implications for women's empowerment, inspiring further research and advocacy for a more equitable and inclusive economic landscape. Through the lens of African women's literature, we are reminded of the power of storytelling to illuminate the path towards economic agency for women around the world.

1. The Joys of Motherhood. Oxford: Heinemann, 1979, p. 103.

2. Emecheta, Buchi. Second-Class Citizen. Oxford: Heinemann, 1974, p. 133.

3. The Bride Price. Michigan: G. Braziller, 1976, p. 77.

4. Nwapa, Flora. Efuru. Oxford: Heinemann, 1966, p. 7.

5. Wesolowski, Wlodzimierz. "Class Domination and Power of Interest Groups." The Polish Sociological Bulletin, no. 3/4, Jan.-June 1962, p. 53. 

6. Efuru. Oxford: Heinemann, 1966, pp. 8-9.

7. Collins, Patricia Hill. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. Routledge, 2000.

8. Azodo, Ada Uzoamaka. "Issues in African Feminism: A Syllabus." Women's Studies Quarterly, 1997, p. 201.