SENGHOR was born in October in 1906 in Joal in Senegal. He was a Senegalese politician, poet and writer. He was also the first African to be elected at the Academie Francaise. He finally died in Verson in France on December 20, 2001 in France. SENGHOR attended the catholic mission school in Ngazobil and continued his studies at the Libermann seminary and joined the Lycée Van Vollenhoven in Dakar. He moved to Paris after winning a state scholarship.

Once in Paris, he met with Aimé CESAIRE with whom he developed the idea of negritude. SENGHOR was granted French citizenship. In 1935, he obtained the aggregation degree in grammar and began to work as a teacher at Tours and then in Paris. SENGHOR started his studies in Senegal before moving to France at the age of 22.  He moved to Sorbonne at Lycée Louis Le Grand where he prepared to enter Ecole Normale Supérieure. 

In 1946, SENGHOR married Ginette Eboué (1923-1992) a daughter of Felix Eboué, former General Governor of French Equatorial Africa and a Guyanese administrator with whom SENGHOR had two sons. Elected member of the National Assembly in 1951, SENGHOR was a mayor of Thiès in November 1956. As one of the advocates of the concept of negritude which is the sum total of the values of the black race, Léopold Sédar SENGHOR strives to reaffirm the African identity and personality of the black world in an aim to fight against discrimination, racism which turn out to be the landmark of colonial enterprise in Africa.

As the Nigerian scholar Chinua ACHEBE chronicles in his outstanding work Things Fall Apart the cultural values of the Nigerian society as well as its ills. The portrayal of African society and the beliefs, as well as its customs is also the subject matter of Camara LAYE’s The Dark Child. This work will analyze in a specific way the SENGHOR’s literary career as a poet as well as his political trajectory as a statesman who led his country towards political independence in the sixties. This is also an attempt to shed light on the cultural dynamics of the Negritude movement as a revalorization of the dignity and the personality of the black race.

The Concept of Negritude as a Revalorization of Black Identity and Culture

On September 1960, SENGHOR became the first president of Senegal and resigned from office in December 1980 before the end of his fifth presidential term and was replaced by the president Abdou Diouf who at the time was a Prime Minister. SENGHOR was thought as one of Africa’s dynamic artists of socialism. During the Second World War, SENGHOR moved to the French army and was detained for 18 months in a German military camp. After his release in 1942, his life was shaped by his involvement in politics in1945. The year 1945 marks also the publication of his first work Chants d’Ombres. 

In 1946, SENGHOR helped Alioune Diop to establish the cultural journal Présence Africaine in 1947. Upon his return to Africa, SENGHOR formed the Senegalese democratic bloc. As a co-founder of the Negritude movement which stands for the affirmation of African values of the black race and a sense of revolt against colonization, SENGHOR emphasizes the glorification of the African past. The concept of negritude which was defended by the poet brought about many controversies. The French philosopher Jean Paul SARTRE declares that Negritude was “anti-racist racism”. The concept of negritude was primary coined by the Martinican scholar Aimé CESAIRE in his epic poem A Book of a Return to a Native Land as he quotes:

My negritude is not a stone, its deafness hurled against the clamors of the day 

My negritude is neither tower nor cathedral

It takes its root in the red flesh of the sky

It breaks through opaque prostration with its upright patience. 

Although these scholars came from different cultural and political backgrounds as they were united as a result of their blackness and African origin. Aimé CESAIRE was born in Martinique an island which was torn by the damaging effects of slave trade.  A Notebook of a Return to the Native Land by Aimé CESAIRE was a work of immerse cultural significance as the long poem can be seen as a masterpiece and the beginning of CESAIRE’s quest for negritude; the sense of cultural identity which was really absent from their daily agenda. The negritude movement was much influenced by Harlem Renaissance through the advocacy of such American African scholars as Claude McKay and Langston Hughes who pave the way for black expression and the revival of the black race.

Negritude which was often viewed as the revalorization of the black race asserted an identity for black people worldwide in which they claim the loss of motherland. The negritude movement which developed in the sixties in France was a real opportunity for black people to fight against European cultural domination in order to restore African cultural heritage and black identity which was even veiled by European colonization for several centuries back. The three fathers of negritude movement once they met in Paris wanted to raise the issue of colonial racism over past exploitation and oppression by white colonists before fostering African heritage and the beauty of the black race. It is important to note that Léon Gontras DAMAS’s concept of negritude was meant to denounce the ills of colonial domination from which blacks suffer a lot. 

Because the word nigger was commonly used by European colonists for racist purposes which meant the concept of savage, a derogatory signifier of downtrodden and backward. However, SENGHOR, CESAIRE and DAMAS had a different approach of the negritude concept. CÉSAIRE wanted to restore African dignity and blackness by rising against all forms of assimilation. 

SENGHOR adopts a distinct approach to negritude. He dreams about a world where there is an interaction between black and western cultures with mutual understanding and cultural diversity. In SENGHOR’s poetry, there is a yearning for ancestral roots, a nostalgic return to the promise land which is represented by Africa. The intimate interaction with the ancestors remains also the subject matter of SENGHOR’s poetry. In this respect, in his poem Joal, he Senegalese poet’s native land is much glorified and venerated:

I remember the dance of the nubile girls. The choruses at the wrestling matches. 

Oh! The final dance of the youths, torsos, learning forward, tall and slim, the women’s pure shout of love-kor Siga. 

SENGHOR as an advocate of African culture also celebrates the beauty of the African woman in all her splendor. This beautiful portrayal and beautification the African female is symbolic of the nostalgic love of motherland Africa. Moreover, SENGHOR poem The Black Woman was published in 1945 in Chants d’Ombres:

Naked woman, dark woman

Ripe fruit of firm flesh, dark

Ecstasies of black wine, mouth that 

Makes my mouth sing. 

As a literary, emotional, intellectual, and political movement Senghorian negritude personifies Africa- the nation as an African woman who represents the African race, the love for Africa as a motherland. In Chants d’Ombres by SENGHOR, the analysis is laid on the African culture. The title of the collection of poetry Chants d’Ombres is all the more symbolic as it refers to the dynamics of African culture and civilization even before the arrival of the white men. It is meaningful to argue that the word song reveals a means of communication, symbol of poetry and interaction with the other. In African traditional society, the song as a source of orality was the landmark of oral tradition which was transmitted from generation to another. As for “Ombre “refers to mystery, wisdom, black color, black race, Africa as a whole. The omnipresence of black references illustrates the idea of cultural belonging to the motherland. 

The feeling of nostalgia, suffering and loneliness become the quintessence of SENGHOR’s poetry whose humanist zeal no longer needs to be demonstrated. This is a great opportunity for SENGHOR to denounce the dehumanizing consequences of European colonization by valuing the concept of universal civilization as well as the symbiosis of western and African cultures. Idealized as the representation of the black culture, Chants d’Ombres embodies the concept of race which plays a central role in Negro-African poetry as well as SENGHOR’s portrayal of the moral, sensual, esthetic virtues of the black woman. 

SENGHOR makes a distinction between materialism and the perversion of western values and the sense of humanism that derives from African customs and values. Although the negritude movement tends to glorify African tradition, it remains controversial. The Nigerian author Wole SOYINKA heavily criticizes the negritude concept. 

In 1948, SENGHOR’s second collection of poetry was published as Hosties Noires and followed by the publication of the third collection Ethiopiques in 1956. The poet evidences his childhood memories, religious syncretism, celebration of the African woman and Africa as a whole, the concept of universal civilization, the close relationship between death and life as well as the role of the artist in society. SENGHOR’s intellectual encounter with DAMAS, and CESAIRE shaped his thoughts as a poet. 

Received at the aggregation of grammar in 1935, SENGHOR became a French teacher. His second collection of poetry Hosties Noires became the backbone of his commitment as a scholar. The title of this collection of poetry is very symbolic. As the chant or song in English reveals a means of communication, symbol of poetry and interaction with the other. Because in African traditional society, the song as source of orality was the landmark of oral tradition which was transmitted from generation to the next.

“Ombre” refers to the mystery with black colors. This motherland refers to nostalgia, suffering and loneliness, home which represents the quintessence of SENGHOR’s collection of poetry “the Shadow Song” whose humanist zeal no longer needs to be demonstrated is always viewed as one of the proponents of the black race, African culture and authenticity of the black race as well as the socio-political values of black people. This is a great opportunity for SENGHOR to denounce the dehumanizing consequences of European colonization by valorizing the concept of universal civilization and the symbiosis of western and African culture. 

SENGHOR became a captive in June 1940 to February 1942. His collection is composed of 17 long poems. Chants d’Ombres is viewed in idealized representation of the black race in which race plays a central role in Negro-African poetry as SENGHOR celebrates the moral, sensual and esthetic virtues of the black woman. SENGHOR makes a large distinction between the concept materialism and the perversion of western values and the sense of humanism that derives from African customs and values, the revalorization of the black race appears in SENGHOR’s poem Le Retour de L’Enfant Prodige and Eros. In this poem Neige sur Paris, the poet describes the ill-effects of Europeans colonization from which Africans suffered for many centuries back.         

In SENGHOR’s poem, Nuit de Sine, the Senegalese poet sheds light on the sense of conviviality, happiness, peace and harmony which pervert African cultural environment. Furthermore, the village is seen as a place of gathering, joy and happiness as the special role of music in traditional culture. In his poem Neige sur Paris, the author portrays the European culture which is associated with the sense of loneliness, isolation, misery and suffering amidst migrants’ lifestyles in western countries. This contrast is all the more meaningful as it allows the author to affirm a sense of nostalgia and love for his motherland. 

In the same poem Neige sur Paris, SENGHOR reviews the ill-effects of European colonization of African peoples in which natural sources were exploited and human resources displaced to the detriment of millions of Africans who for many centuries back were victims of exploitation and oppression by white colonists. Chants d’Ombres are songs of communion for those who under the shadows. Moreover, in African traditional culture, songs play a key role and are present in funerals, wedding, naming ceremonies and in wars. 

 As a means of communication, songs by Léopold Sédar SENGHOR celebrate the moral sensual and esthetic virtues of the black woman, a physical and moral beauty which epitomizes the beauty of Africa as a whole. This is an attempt for SENGHOR to rely on the affirmation of African values of Negritude, a literary and cultural movement which focuses on the glorification of the black race. In the same vein, the poet opposes African virtues with the degradation of western values through his poem L’Enfant Prodige.

The choice of color plays a key role in SENGHOR’s poetry. In this respect, white is considered with horror and ill-luck and misfortune whereas black is symbolic of purity, harmony, and solidarity. This is a means to emphasis cultural differences especially in African and western cultures which are the subject matter of SENGHOR’s poem. In his poem Joal, the poet claims a return to ancestral roots and a mixture of two cultures especially European and African cultures. The poem Joal which is the representation of SENGHOR’s native town and motherland as a symbol of African values whereas the poem Le Masque Nègre, the poet focuses on the admiration for the Italian painter Picasso for whom he deeply admired. 

The glorification of African culture is also the landmark of SENGHOR’s collection of poetry Ethiopiques in 1956. Poems refer to Ethiopia, the birthplace of African history. This is also an image of African personality and cultural values. As Africa’s most famous poets, SENGHOR strives to analyze the cultural relationship between Africa and Europe. This is a great opportunity for the outstanding poet to review the mythical, heroic and emblematic historical figures like Chaka, a Zoulou warrior defender of African nations as well as the queen of Saba. 

This collection of poetry by SENGHOR is his third publication of poetry which focuses on cultural dynamics. Composed of 18 poems, Ethiopiques evidences the celebration of the ancestors, a reference to Ghana Empire as a reflection on the relationship between poetry and political engagement. This collection of poetry is also an evocation of African traditions, its countryside, myth, and the portrayal of African women and religious beliefs. 

 This work by SENGHOR is an illustration of the poet’s motherland and race as well as African kingdom as an image of harmony that existed before the introduction of colonialism in Africa. This shows that SENGHOR as a serer attempt to reconcile his literary life and political action as a poet.

Between his poetry and political work, SENGHOR sits himself as a mediator between France and Africa. As a key figure of the Negritude movement, SENGHOR analyses the emotion of black soul as black people’s interaction with Europe for the sake of universal civilization as a true humanist and a man of dialogue of cultures illustrated by SENGHOR’s poem Black Woman:

Nude woman, black woman

Your color is life, your form is beauty

I grew up in your shadow; the wetness of your hands bandaged my eyes.

And now, in the heart of summer and noon, I find you again, Promised Land from the height of a burnt hill

And your beauty strikes my heart like the lightening of an eagle.

Nude woman, black woman 

Ripe fruit of solid flesh 

This poem The Black Woman by SENGHOR celebrates the physical and spiritual beauty of the black woman which generally enhances the image of African culture and identity. There is also the author’s fascination and desire through the use of metaphors and anaphors which elevate the woman to a myth and a sacred state endowed with power and dignity. SENGHOR’s poetry is significant as it chronicles the revival of African values. It is important to argue that the concept of blackness which is an integral part of Nocturnes by SENGHOR commemorates the beauty of the African woman and sense of nostalgia, for childhood memories and years, as the night is associated with love, and hospitality which pervades SENGHOR poetry.

SENGHOR was a one the outstanding Senegalese poets to be elected the first president of Senegal in 1960. An influential intellectual, SENGHOR clearly reviews the recognition of an African culture and civilization, the promotion of black civilization of the universal. 

The concept of negritude by SENGHOR gained momentum in the 1930s in Paris in a way to fight against European assimilation, racism and discrimination against the black world. This cultural engagement which coupled with overt activism paves the way for Senghorian poetry and political engagement to lead his country towards political independence in the sixties

1. CESAIRE, Aimé, Cahier d’un Retour au Pays Natal, Présence Africaine, 1947 https://dn790005.ca.archive.org/0/items/aimecesairecahierdunretouraupaysnatalpresenceafricaine2000/Aim%C3%A9%20C%C3%A9saire%20-%20Cahier%20d%27un%20retour%20au%20pays%20natal-Pr%C3%A9sence%20Africaine%20%282000%29_text.pdf

2. SENGHOR, Léopold Sédar, Chant d’Ombres, Paris : Editions du Seuil, 1945. https://africanpoetics.unl.edu/inthenews/works/item/apdp.work.000338

3. SENGHOR, Léopold Sédar, Ethiopiques, Paris : Seuil, 1956

4. SENGHOR, Léopold Sédar, Hosties Noires, Paris : Seuil, 1948

5. SENGHOR, Léopold Sédar, Le Dialogue des Cultures, Paris : Seuil, 1993

6. SENGHOR, Léopold Sédar, Liberté IV : Socialisme et Planification, Paris : Seuil, 1983

7. SENGHOR, Léopold Sédar, Nation et Voie Africaine du Socialisme, Paris : Seuil 1971

8. SENGHOR, Léopold Sédar, Négritude et Civilisation de l’Universel, Paris : Seuil, 1977

9. SENGHOR, Léopold Sédar, Négritude et Humanisme, Paris : Seuil, 1964 

10. SENGHOR, Léopold Sédar, Anthologie de la Nouvelle Poésie Nègre et Malgache de Langue Française, Paris : Presses Universitaires de France, 1948

11. SENGHOR, Léopold Sédar, Socialisme et Planification, Paris : Seuil, 1983

12. SENGHOR, Léopold Sédar, Dialogue des Cultures, Paris : Seuil, 1993 

13. SENGHOR, Léopold Sédar, Négritude et Arabisme : La Dialectique Négro-Arabe, Présence Africaine, 1967 

14. SENGHOR, Léopold Sédar, Rapport sur la Doctrine et le Programme du Parti, Paris : Présence Africaine, 1959