Land is an emotive issue in the African continent. In the past few decades, land sizes held by households in most parts of Africa has declined tremendously due to successive land sub-division and inheritance. This review explores the literature on social meaning of land and how social meaning of land influences land sub-division in Africa to aid in building comprehensive literature on social aspects of land. The review concludes that African communities have attached various social meanings to land but how such social meanings of land influences land sub-division remains unclear.
Land is a precious resource to the rural folk. Land is synonymous with rural livelihoods in most societies in the Least Developed Countries [1]. For instance, African communities value land to the extent of even engaging in conflicts and displacement. Although land is a natural resource that guarantees rural livelihoods, the manner in which people value land in Africa and other parts of the developing world is so emotive and complex to the extent that everyone needs land for survival culminating to intensified land sub-division and generational inheritance [2].
Interestingly, the significance attached to land is endemic even in the 21st century that is characterized by advanced technology, high literacy levels and heightened international movements and social interaction induced by globalization [3]. Similarly, Ambwere [4] contends that the educated, the rich and poor alike consider land as the single most important form of personal asset and is deeply entrenched with its distribution and use. Although literature has indicated that land has economic meaning [1,5,6] and political meaning [7,8], there exists scanty literature on social meaning of land and how this influence land sub-division in third world countries today.
Aim of the Review
The review aimed to identify and summarize the available information on social meaning of land and how it influences land sub-division. Specifically, it aimed at:
Investigating how social meaning of land influence land sub-division
Identifying research gap(s) on social meaning of land and how it influences land sub-division to stimulate further studies
Criteria for Inclusion
This review focused on literature on social meaning of land and how it influences land sub-division in Africa. The reason for choosing Africa is the fact that it is a continent where the practice of land sub-division and inheritance is significantly higher intense and that land is central to people’s lives. The review covered all the literature on social meaning of land and its influence on land sub-division published in electronic data bases and libraries between January 1995 and December 2020.
Search Strategy
The articles in this review were searched under headings such as “land and African People” “Social meaning of land” and “social meaning of land and land sub-division”. Through the search, sixty-eight (68) articles with searched titles were obtained after which scanning was done by reading titles and abstracts to ascertain their relevance in this review. Twenty (20) articles were found to be apposite and thus the review was based on the articles.
Review Findings
Land is synonymous with rural livelihood. In the developing world, land and rural people are inseparable in that the lives of the people revolves around land. To the rural communities, land may have economic, political and social meanings. However, this literature review is only concerned with social meaning(s) that rural households make out of land. Available literature has documented how land has a social connotation to households including living space, collective identity and wellbeing, continuity of generation, fulfilment of social norms, spiritual meaning and source of social status.
Let us begin with a review of literature on living space as a social meaning that households derive from land. Njunge [8] in her work “When Fight for Land Invites Murder and Mayhem in Families” noted that African culture has depicted land as an essential commodity defining peoples’ living context. The author argued that in the context of African culture, one is nothing without land because land provides people a place to build houses and help a man to secure future for his children. The author further notes that people who don’t have land or not build houses are viewed as failures. Njunge [8] has made significant contribution on how land in African is viewed as a living space and that success is measured on how a person has a place, he/she calls home.
Still on living space and land, Kimeu and Maneno [1] in their work “Securing Land Inheritance and Land Rights for Women in Kenya” observed that women in Kenya were excluded from land inheritance and rights. Kimeu and Maneno then concluded that everyone needs a place to call home, a place where people have their roots. Their sentiments show how land is central to people in the rural areas and how it is connected with living space, a fundamental social meaning of land.
Contributing to the debate on land and living space, Fobih [9] noted that secure access to land was critical in providing African people a place to live. The author argued that to ensure privacy, people have their land usually demarcated with buildings and farms within the land boundary. Fobih [9] further noted that access to land makes people have a strong sense of belonging and identity. Thus, land means a source of shelter and living space for humanity and therefore people have a strong attachment to their land. However, the work by Fobih [9] focused on both farmers and urban poor in Africa and this did not bring out a clear picture on how land is viewed in the context of living space because rural and urban aspects of land were incorporated in arriving at the conclusion above.
Nandiemo [10] wrote on how a man murdered his brother in cold blood over land dispute in Rongo, Kenya. According to this write up, the brothers had a protracted dispute over land belonging to their father which resulted to the man inflicting of deep cuts in his brother using machete. The work by Nandiemo [10] shows competition for land as living space. People are involved in land disputes because of competition for the “social meaning of living space”.
Literature has also shown that cultural fulfillment constitutes social meaning that people attach to land. Gilbert [11] noted that land is central in cultural preservation in most rural communities. Gilbert argues that land rights assume special importance for indigenous people, without access to their land, indigenous cultures are in danger of extinction. That land is a source of cultural identity. Gilbert [11] has put a mark in the debate on land and culture but the work entirely focused on the indigenous people and their land.
According to Kymlicka [12], survival of community’s culture depends on protection of ancestral land. Ancestral land as reported by Kymlicka, is strongly linked to the culture of a community and it is only through protection of the land that culture can be preserved. Although Kymlicka [12], has contributed to literature on culture and land, the work has focused on protection of land for prosperity of a community’s culture.
Mbevi [13] reported that communities have historically used land to perform various cultural activities and rituals that are cornerstone to their survival. That rituals associated with rain making and thanksgiving to God, in African societies, have been linked to land and are performed in certain places including mountains, valleys, forest, etc. This implies that land means cultural preservation for people in Africa. The rituals are performed with the help of ancestors of the land. The work by Mbevi [13] is critical as cultural activities and land are concerned.
Contributing to literature on land and fulfillment of social norms Dery [14] observed that land means burial site for the dead in a community. Dery argues that historically, land where people have buried their forefathers is reserved and regarded sacred. Such essential landmarks (burial sites) provide people with their roots and identity. Moving out of such land is an abomination is some culture because that is where ancestors lie. Thus, land means continuity of a generation and life through burials. The work by Dery [14] illustrates the reasons why it is difficult for some people to move out their ancestral land. Collective identity and wellbeing have also been associated with social meanings that communities derive from land. Delville [15] while studying formal laws and customary land rights in French-Speaking West African nations, reported that land is related to the holder’s identity which is paramount to belonging. Delville argued that ancestral land and rights for people to own such land is critical in promoting the identity and well-being of a community.
Tafira’s [2] work on “Why Land Evokes Such Deep Emotions in Africa” illustrated how land in Africa is central to peoples’ collective identity and well-being. Tafira reported that for Africans, land is everything and that taking away land from individuals is like robbing them of their person-hood, being and identity. The scholarly work by the Tafira [2] points out why people are obsessed with ancestral land.
Barume [16] in his work “Land Rights of Indigenous People in Central, Eastern and Southern Africa” reported that land was viewed by the people as indispensable to their collective identity and well-being. That land is indissolubly linked to the identity of the indigenous people and that land helps a community to preserve its language due to close knit relationship and close living. The work by Barume [16] is critical to the literature on land and collective identity for African people. However, it fails to take into account the collective identity meaning of people who might have purchased land in away from their ancestral land.
Gilbert [11] also reported that territories and land for indigenous people are the basis not only for economic livelihood but also are the source of social identity. That people derive their collective wellbeing from ancestral land and that this is a source of a sense of belonging to people in a particular community. However, Gilbert’s work didn’t take into account the influence of land on social identity of both indigenous and non-indigenous people to establish whether it applies to both populations.
Available literature has also linked land to spiritual matters of communities. According to Barume [16], land to African people has a spiritual meaning. That indigenous communities have a distinctive and profound spiritual and material relationship with their lands. In the pre-industrial African societies, Barume claims, people relied on land to give thanks to God. In some communities, people climbed mountains within their land to pray if a calamity befell their communities. The worship land was highly valued, respected and reticent as sacred. Further, some communities would organize for prayers in such holy places before planting and harvesting for blessings and thanksgiving. The work on land and spirituality by Barume [16] best fits communities in their early stages (pre-industrial communities). With people embracing Western religion, it is not possible that people are still worship mountains.
Literature has also linked land to social status in some rural communities. Contributing to this debate, Njunge [8] revealed that land is a source of social status. That men derive respect and high social status by owning large tracts of land. Njunge contends that for men land is an ego thing. She adds that men have been made to think that if they have no land, they are not men enough, which is sufficient motivation to go as far as killing to own a piece of land or keep that in their possession. Although Njunge [8] has made remarkable contribution to the literature on land and men’s social status, the work has not taken into account men with limited land resulting from continuous land sub-division and inheritance. Are men still deriving social status from such small land?
According to Tafira [2], land determines social status and class of a person. Tafira contends that traditionally land was of great value in West Europe to the extent of defining the social status and class position of individuals. The work by Tafira [2] has illustrated how land is used to curve social niche for people owning enormous land acreage. However, the work doesn’t reveal whether the social status and class position change with decline in land acreage mostly due to successive land sub-division like what is experienced in most rural areas in Africa. Adding to the literature on land and social status, Owino conducted a study on the “Socio-cultural Determinants of Food Security and Consumption Patterns in Kisumu, Kenya”. The study established that people without land are deemed poor. The findings portrayed how households without land are looked down upon, indicating that land is critical parameter in social ranking in society. However, the findings revealed how households without land are perceived by society but didn’t not touch on how households with limited land resulting from land sub-division are perceived.
As per studies reviewed above, land is a critical resource to rural people. The significance of land in the rural areas cannot be underrated. Literature has linked land to living space [1,2,8,9,10], fulfillment of social norms/ cultural fulfillment [11-14], collective identity and well-being [11,15,16], spiritual matters of communities [16], and source social status [8,17]. Based on the literature, there are a number of fundamental questions that need answers. First, as social status and land is concerned, what happens to social status and class position of men in society when land acreage decline as a result of successive land sub-division? Are men still deriving social status from such small land? Second, with modernization, globalization and modern religion, do communities still use land for spiritual matters? Third, land for indigenous people has been portrayed as a basis for social identity, what is the influence of land on social identity of non-indigenous people who might have purchased land way from their ancestral land? These are among the areas that need further research.
How Social Meanings of Land Influence Land Sub-division
Having reviewed literature on the social meanings that people make out of land, it was imperative to focus on review of literature on how the social meanings of land influence land sub-division. This is because land sub-division in Kenya and other parts of Africa is so rife even in the 21st century that is characterized by high literacy levels, advanced technology and relatively low adherence to traditional norms and values [3]. That the educated, the rich and poor alike consider land as the single most important form of personal asset and is deeply entrenched with its distribution and use [4].
To begin with, Kimani and Pickard [18] in their study, “Recent trends and implications of group ranch sub-division and fragmentation in Kajiado District, Kenya”, observed that the Maasai community in Kenya is slowly sub-dividing community land into individual land. What follows the land sub-division is further fragmentation of plots for sale, in many cases to non-Maasai. The authors maintained that average plot sizes have decreased, while the number of fenced properties and the levels of cultivation had increased. Due to land sub-division, Kimani and Pickard argued, the Maasai are gradually losing their best land and are being pushed into the drier areas. From the findings of this study, it is evident that land sub-division of the community land is influnced by the desire by community members to acquire individual land and then sale to get money. The land sub-division is in no way influenced by social meanings of land instead it was influenced by financial gains.
A study by Museleku, Kimani, Mwangi, and Syagga revealed that socio-cultural and economic factors are the most significant drivers of agricultural land sub-division in Kajiado, Kenya. The authors asserted that land inheritance practices were among the socio-cultural factors influencing land sub-division in the area. However, this study focused on socio-cultural and economic factors influencing sub-division of agricultural land and not the social meaning of land that facilitate land sub-division.
In the paper entitled ““Land Reform- Experience from Nigeria “, Olayiwola and Adeleye [19] reported that inheritance greatly influence land sub-division various parts of Africa. The authors contend that land inheritance is the primary cause of land sub-division particularly when households desire to provide each of several heirs with land. Olayiwola and Adeleye, [19] concludes by saying that land inheritance laws applied in most countries facilitate or demand the subdivision of holdings into equal parts among all heirs or in some countries among only sons
According to Limo [20], social factors also influence land sub-division. The author illustrates that the desire to own land is also a popular reason for land sub-division and that In and out migration in some high agricultural potential areas provide room to dispose and opportunity to own land. Although Limo [20] has reported that social factors influence land sub-division, the study did not focus on social meanings on land and how they have influnced land sub-division.
In a nutshell, authors have written on the factors influencing land sub-division. Kimani and Pickard has demonstrated that land sub-division among the Maasai community in Kenya is influnced by financial gains through sale of land, Museleku, Kimani, Mwangi, and Syagga (2018) have documented that socio-cultural and economic factors are influencing land sub-division in Kajiado, Olayiwola and Adeleye [19] has reported that land inheritance has greatly influnced land sub-division in Africa and Limo [20] has pointed out that social factors are influencing land sub-division in Trans-Nzoia West Sub-County, Kenya. From all these studies, no study has focused on how social meaning(s) of land among various households/ communities have influenced land sub-division. Thus, there is need for a study to investigate how various social meanings of land by communities / household’s influence land sub-division to fill this gap. This will help build concrete literature on the social meaning of land and land sub-division.
Land is a fundamental in human life. Communities attach various meaning to land including living space, collective identity and wellbeing, fulfilment of social norms, source of prestige and continuity of generation among other social meanings. Although there is scanty literature on how social meaning of land has influenced land sub-division, desire to fulfill such social meanings by community members have likely influnced land sub-division witnessed in most parts of Africa.
Kimeu, S., and M. Maneno. “Securing Land Inheritance and Land Rights for Women in Kenya.” 2017 World Bank Conference on Land and Poverty, The World Bank, Washington DC, March 2017.
Tafira, K. “Why Land Evokes Such Deep Emotions in Africa.” The Conversation Africa, University of South Africa, 2015.
Omboki, A. “Farmers Urged to Adopt Modern Technology to Ensure Enough Food.” African Woman and Child Feature Service: Media Diversity Centre, January 2016.
Ambwere, S. Policy Implications of Land Subdivision in Settlement Areas: A Case Study of Lumakanda Settlement Scheme. University of Nairobi, 2003.
Abdullah, et al. “Factors Affecting Household Food Security in Rural Northern Hinterland of Pakistan.” Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2017.05.003.
Wickramaarachchi, N.C., and J. Weerahewa. “Land Fragmentation and Land Productivity: Empirical Evidence from Land Distribution Schemes of Sri Lanka.” Journal of Business and Management, vol. 5, no. 1, 2016, pp. 11–21.
Kebaso, M.W. Effects of Land Sub-divisions to Food Security in Kaputiei, Kajiado North, Kajiado County. University of Nairobi, 2017.
Njunge, C. “When Fight for Land Invites Murder and Mayhem in Families.” Daily Nation, Nairobi, 2 January 2020.
Fobih, D. “The Significance of Secure Access to Land for the Livelihoods and Food Security of Africa’s Farmers and Urban Poor.” Land in Africa: Market Asset or Secure Livelihood? Land in Africa Conference, London, November 2004.
Nandiemo, V. “Man Murders Brother in Cold Blood Over Land Dispute.” Daily Nation, Nairobi, 31 August 2018.
Gilbert, J. Custodians of the Land: Indigenous Peoples, Human Rights and Cultural Integrity. New York: Transnational Publishers, 2017.
Kymlicka, W. Multicultural Citizenship. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995.
Mbevi, L.M. Women’s Access to Agricultural Information and Its Impact on Household Food Security in Kyau Village, Makueni County, Kenya. University of Nairobi, 2015.
Dery, I. “Access to and Control over Land as Gendered: Contextualizing Women’s Access and Ownership Rights of Land in Rural Ghana.” Africanus Journal of Development Studies, vol. 45, no. 2, 2015, pp. 28–48.
Delville, L.P. “Harmonising Formal Law and Customary Land Rights in French-speaking West Africa.” Evolving Land Rights, Policy and Tenure in Africa, Department for International Development, International Institute for Environment and Development/Natural Resources Institute, London, 2000.
Barume, A.K. Land Rights of Indigenous People in Africa: With Special Focus on Central, Eastern and Southern Africa. Copenhagen: IWGIA, 2010.
Owino, F.O. “Socio-cultural Determinants of Food Security and Consumption Patterns in Kisumu, Kenya.” Journal of Food and Public Health, vol. 9, no. 4, 2019, pp. 119–124.
Kimani, K., and J. Pickard. “Recent Trends and Implications of Group Ranch Sub-Division and Fragmentation in Kajiado District, Kenya.” The Geographical Journal, vol. 164, no. 2, 1998, pp. 202–213.
Olayiwola, L.M., and O. Adeleye. “Land Reform: Experience
Limo, E.B.C. Land Sub-Division Effect on Agricultural Productivity in Trans-Nzoia West Sub-County, Kenya. Moi University, 2016.
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