The alarming rate and growing incidence of unchecked or undocumented exodus of various nationals across borders has become more disheartening globally most especially in developing nations like Nigeria; Niger, Chad among others [1]. This is true in the sense that the numerous security threats or challenges being encountered in the states are traceable to doorstep of the ugly incidence. In a saner world, all migration activities taking place in or out of a state need not constitute a threat to any country should the movements undergo necessary documentations and legitimate processes. This ugly incidence, however calls for great concern any time migration of people or goods does not go through the appropriate regulated statutory processes thereby raising questions as to why such movements do not undergo proper documentations of authorities in the state (country) of origin or known destination. That is the reason Adeyinka [2] lamented stated that there is no sufficient data on irregular migration in and out of Nigeria due to porosity of land borders; making the policing against illegal cross-border movements more complicated. 

In the same vein, the quantum of illegal migrations across the globe; most especially in West African region has taken a disheartening dimension. This is corroborate as the United Nations Population Fund indicated that an estimate of two hundred and thirty two million (232,000,000) people of various nationals now settle in different nations other than theirs globally. However, a submission of 90 percent of people’s migration takes place in West Africa, which doubles the movements to other destinations. The matter of great concern at present is the danger of these movements as many of them are unchecked, unregulated and undocumented, thereby posing numerous border issues in Nigerian state and other neighbouring states in Africa [3].

Although human migration from one place to another is inevitable across the globe particularly with the advent of globalization, and in actual sense there is need for the movements to be adequately documented and regulated through effective border control and management. In the meantime, studies have shown that the migration of people from one place to another has a long history; the volume of this movement has drastically increased in recent years as improved socio-economic development and technological advancement facilitated upheaval of the process [4]. Movements of people along national borders are definitely inevitable in African continent where impact of colonial rule had brought up the division of ethnic groupings into different neighbouring states. 

Despite the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Protocol article 27 submission which gives room for free movement and residence of people within the region, the protocol does not permission for illegal movement. As it is statutory that all migrants unavoidably have to register in their country of destination within in a period of ninety days, the rule is usually violated by several migrants [5]. Despite the establishment of ECOWAS passports, it is however unfortunate that many migrants from member states have been migrating to various states in the region without a visa. Besides, the ECOWAS protocol does not guarantee free or unrestricted movement pursuant to the sense that each member state possesses her own sovereignty to decide the persons to enter her territory and the conditions attached and the rights to safely repatriate irregular persons [5]. 

Recently, the Nigerian Government in 1983 compelled and forced all illegal immigrants numbering up to two million to leave the state, and about half of them were Ghanaians – it was then tagged ‘Ghana must go’ [16]. This is due to the fact that adequate and thorough documentation and regulation are not carried out on who and what goes in or out of the country, making the state vulnerable to all forms of insecurity and terrorist activities [1].

Meanwhile, the incidence of undocumented migrants threatens the security and development of Nigeria, posing dangerous threats to her border security respectively. In the same vein, non-documentation of cross-border movements has unavoidably impeded effective border control and management in the state, thereby putting the state’s human security at jeopardy. It is against this backdrop that this study seeks to discuss the illegal cross-border activities and undocumented migration as obstacles to border security in Nigeria. 

Conceptual Clarifications

Concept of Undocumented Migration: In the first instance, the word ‘migration’ could simply be defined as the movement of people from one area of a country (or from one country) to another area of the same country (or to another country) for the purpose of establishing a new residence [6]. In the same vein, the meaning of migration varies from diverse perspectives, there is an accord which states that it involves the movement of people across a recognized political boundary to establish permanent or semi-permanent residence [6]. Also, the residence period also varies, but it is largely accepted that six (6) months of residence in a new location suffices to categorize a person as a migrant. However, internal migration refers to a change of residence within a nation state, while international migration involves a change of residence between two states. According to the United Nations, an international migrant refers to any person who changes his or her nation of usual residence. Therefore, international migration involves movement of many classes, such as people leaving their nations of origin for economic reasons or the other, to join their families abroad or as refugees.

Explicitly analyzed, the concept of undocumented migration would be fully comprehended. The concept of undocumented migration ordinarily refers to the going in and out of people together with their goods without adequate or statutory documents or permission to live or work in a country in the absence of statutory registration by the relevant authorities [7]. Undocumented migration, for this study, points to illegal, undocumented and unregistered movement or migration of people into or out of a particular geographical or political boundary of a state. In addition, undocumented migration implies the engagements, activities or actions of people concerning entry, exit, or residence that contravene the laws of countries of origin, transit, and destination at the particular period when such actions take place [8]. 

Corroborating the people’s movements, Wafula [9] indicates that, in order to cross a national border to others, a person needs a passport and visa or other appropriate forms of means of identification. To stay or work within a country ‘s borders, foreigners usually need special immigration documents or permits that authorize them to do so. Moving goods across a border often requires the payment of excise tax, often collected by customs officials. Also, animals (and occasionally humans) moving across borders may need to go into quarantine to prevent the spread of exotic or infectious diseases [9]. Most countries prohibit carrying illegal drugs or endangered animals across their borders. The concept of undocumented migration according to this paper therefore focuses more on international trend of analysis.

Concept of Border Security

Border security is therefore, conceptualized to be measures of preventing all illegal entries and exits of people and goods across international boundaries. Border security is at the same time conceptualized to be the protection of national frontiers from illicit flow or entry of people and contraband goods like arms/ammunitions, weapons and drugs and at the same time, maintaining proper immigration and emigration that promote internal security, economic advancement, and national self-reliance [10]. 

Summarily, border security, having been conceptualized, means border control, the measure that usually seeks to facilitate or limit the movements of people, animals, plants, and goods in and out of a state. Border security or control is divided into two major forms: securing borderlines or activities along the boundaries; and as well controlling ports (harbours, border posts and airports) of entry with the main purposes of: imposing conditions under which people legally cross border with documentations such as: passport or visa; ensuring that animals and plants do not transmit lethal diseases; ensuring that goods transported across a border have been paid for, that is, excise tax, and levies; and lastly eliminating all forms of illegal activities usually known as black market and smuggling operations at the borders respectively [10]. 

Lastly, border security is all about asserting territorial sovereignty by enforcing the boundary and by protecting it through permanent surveillance; and border enforcement cum surveillance; which involve the systems that easily pave an opportunity for the country to trace all the movements, uses of goods and most especially the activities of such people once they find themselves in the national territory.

Illegal Cross-Border Engagements on African Borderlands

Abiodun et al. [1] argues that, a border, regardless of its location, epitomizes the points of exchange of goods and services; and point of moving into another geographical or political territory; but the problem there is that most of the engagements or activities taking place are often carried out illegally. Illegal cross-border engagements and movements actually depict the flow of commodities, persons, and ideas which are outlawed by one or more states. And in order to stop these migratory flows from reaching other Africa's external borders, member states should first seek to promote increased cooperation in (and with) the migrants' countries of origin and countries of transit. A common visa policy and interstate information networks were developed, while conveyance companies (such as airlines and shipping firms) were financially penalized if they did not work as "auxiliary" border police to monitor the movement of illegal migrants [11].

Digging deep into illegal migration flows in borderlands from this angle reveals the day-to-day practices in (production, exchange, consumption, and distribution) and local networks that actually make it possible for contraband or illegal commodities to move from across borders undocumented. Illegal movements and engagements of people across borders without statutory documentation pose dangerous threats to political, socio-economic base and state’s security in all ramifications [11]. Moreover, all forms of clandestine activities take place during illegal border crossings. It is therefore required that joint member-state operations at African states’ borders should coordinate various border security projects and monitoring of illegal movements [12].

The study employed the use of qualitative research method with significant reliability index. Primary data sources included copies of questionnaire administered on respondents while a reasonable number of respondents were selected through purposive sampling technique for interview because of their expertise and knowledge on border security and management. Respondents were monarchs in some border communities in Nigeria and other members and officials drawn from; the Nigeria Customs Service, National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP), National Population Commission (NPopC). Nigerian Immigrations Service (NIS), National Commission for Refugees, Migrants and Internally Displaced Persons (NCFRMI); National Boundaries Commission, Nigeria Immigration Service, scholars from the Covenant University, University of Lagos, and University of Maiduguri, Nigeria respectively. The secondary data employed include: existing literature on the topic such as books, internet, journals, newspapers, magazines, conference papers, IOM, UN, and ECOWAS publications, periodicals and other related documents. In the course of the research, the researcher made use of libraries of: Institute for Peace and Strategic Studies, University of Ibadan, Nigeria, to construct the impact index of the menace on Nigerian border security, while the descriptive analysis was used for the analysis.

Theoretical Framework 

The study embraces the system theory of migration to vividly describe and analyze a synergy between illegal movements cum undocumented migration and border security in Nigeria. The theory was proposed by Professor Akin Mabogunje who first made attempts to discuss the implications of feedback mechanisms on migration in 1970 while it as well points to the fact that the movement of people from one location to another re-engineers and re-jigs the socio-economic and institutional settings at both the origin and the destinations. Mabogunje [13] as cited by De Haas, H. [14] submitted that the spread of information enables other migrants to link individuals with their loved ones over time. 

The theory argues that should the situations remain more favourable to the migrants, other immigrants would be encouraged to follow suit thereby making migration a system that reinforces itself and builds a structure that operates geographically over a period of time. Moreover, the migration systems theory applicable at the global stage include: change in people’s residence, movement of goods, capital and ideas. Based on the assumptions of the migration systems theory, the effects of irregular migration on border security in country is greatly influenced by the new ideas of the undocumented immigrants who their interaction with the locals influences the latter’s cultural, economic, and institutional condition [15]. Considering the views of the theory that undocumented migrants connect with their family members and later encourage others to follow suit, it implies that new life styles are transmitted back to migrants’ place of origin which therefore, contributes more to propensity to migrate by those that were earlier left behind. 

The various nationals of the ECOWAS states constituted the majority (51.4%) of the immigrants in Nigeria, while about 16% remained the nationals of other African states. This clearly shows that over two-thirds of the immigrant’s population in Nigeria were of African origin. Also, almost one-third of the immigrants were not from African states, including citizens of European, Asian, and American continents: United Kingdom, India, China, the United States, Brazil, France, Israel, Germany, Italy, among others. However, the dominance of ECOWAS citizens among foreign nationals in Nigeria is not a new trend. The figures attained from the ECOWAS Commission reveal that the percentage of ECOWAS citizens among foreigners in Nigeria was greatly more between 2001 and 2005, as immigrants encompassed 0.74% of the total population of Nigeria in 2006, up from 0.6% in 2000 and 0.7% in 2005 [6]. 

The Table 7 indicates the total population of Nigerian state from the 2006 Census to date. Obviously, the large population base in the country, its rapid growth rate, and the youthful population are parts of the significant driving factors for both internal and international migration.

Major Factors Giving Room to Illegal Cross-Border Engagements and Undocumented Migration along Nigerian Borders and in Africa

The key factors giving way to illegal cross-border engagement and undocumented movements and as well obstacles to border security and management in Africa are as follows:

• Poor Governance, Security and Management African Borders There is growing criminal engagements of migrants despite tightening of borders to block criminals and terrorists. Border security and the management, the strategy that promotes national security has now been left jettisoned and given low priority in Africa in comparison to all sorts of security apparatus provided for various political elites including their assets in the capital cities and other urban areas. As the various advanced states embraces adequate security of their borders, little or no attention is paid to African borders. Therefore, the negligence of border security coupled with poor management African borders has largely contributed to a prevalence of cross-border crimes [16]

• Pressure on the Available Resources in a State and People Migrate Illegally to Seek Greener Pastures

The level of population growth in a state may have put uncontrollable pressure on available resources therein, thereby resulting to the illegal migration of people from that state to another country or destination to get comfort. Most of the countries in African remain densely populated and as a result of this, people migrate to other states without having documents for documentation at borders. These set of people enter through various illegal routes. The movement of people across national borders is not devoid of reasons, though these reasons may vary from place to place, groups to groups and individual to individual. Some of the most common reasons why people migrate illegally are to look for greener pastures largely influenced by poverty from the place of origin. In order way round, many cattle herders rear their livestock from their original places to another destination to feed their animals and these people move without migration documents. They also take illegal and unauthorized routes to different locations they so wish [16]

• Incessant or Prolonged Conflicts Others migrate as refugees due to prolonged conflicts in their places of origin while some migrate to unite with their families that have been separated by colonialism into different nation countries. The increasing spate of communal clashes and conflicts in the continent of Africa since several decades has also necessitated illegal and undocumented movements into and out of states. These civil unrests have displaced a lot of people who were compelled to migrate to neighboring countries for safety. This is in line with what the Field Survey [16] stated that majority of migrants are forced to cross borders as a result of lingering crisis in their places of origin. 

• Case of Asylum Seekers and Refugees Moreover, the unauthorized influx of refugees and asylum seekers into Nigeria has also made it easy for several conventions allowing such movements across international borders, without been treated as illegal immigrants. It is unfortunate that many asylum seekers fail to register to attain the asylum status in their new destinations at a particular point in time [16] 

• Robust Illegal Trading Activities Taking Place at Borders At the same time, this takes place as a result of the robust and huge trading activities taking place along Nigeria’s borders with other African states like: Niger Republic, Benin Republic, Republic of Chad, and Cameroon encourage illegal movements and undocumented migration [16]. Meanwhile, the most distorting aspect of these trading activities is that they are carried out in an illegal manner either from or into the Nigerian state. Most of these trading activities occur inform of: dealings in proliferation of arms and weapons, vehicles smuggling, used cloths and other consumable items [16]

• Absence of Integration or Cooperation at all Levels Lack of integration remains order of the day at all levels: local, governmental and regional respectively. At the local level, most border management endeavours do not include or carry along the border communities. Many more of security operatives’ deployments are often carried out without including local interests or partnering with locals despite their comprehensive knowledge of the border terrain. Also, at government level, there exists little or no integration and synergy among different departments such as: immigration, customs, police and intelligence in all sense [16]

• Poorly-marked Boundaries and Absence of Demarcation The poor nature, marking and demarcation of boundaries in Africa poses serious threat to border security and control. These have contributed immensely to border insecurity in Africa. Management of borders in African borders remains a daunting task. Patrolling a state’s borders may often lead to violations of neighbours’ territories laws, as one cannot patrol what does not exist [16]

• Corruption, Marginalization and Exclusion of Border Communities in the Scheme of Things 

Newman [17] agrees that when border communities are marginalized and excluded from the scheme of things or activities as a result of high rate of corruption among the Nigerian government officials or institutions responsible, these border communities, however, become uncooperative and highly secretive, and “rarely inform government officials on suspicious individuals [16] 

The Illegal Cross-Border Engagement of People and Undocumented Migration as Obstacles to Nigerian Border Security

The menace has remained an obstacle to Nigerian border security in numerous ways:

It Worsens the security at State Borders, Source of Terrorism and Armed Conflicts in Nigerian Territories 

Undocumented migration has created many border problems which has in turn affected the security situation in many countries especially Nigeria. It is a matter of concern that Nigeria share a 1,497-kilometer border with Niger Republic, 85-kilometer border with Chad through Lake Chad and Nigeria’s longest border line is the 1,690-kilometer border with Cameroon [16]. Studies have shown that the border lines between Nigeria and the aforementioned countries have witnessed several hostilities and undocumented migration. For instance, Nigeria deported many undocumented migrants in the early and mid-nineties of which most of them were from Niger. Other clashes have occurred between Nigerian and Chadian soldiers in April 1983 which resulted in more than 100 casualties [16].

It is not an exaggeration to state that Nigeria has faced the most worrisome security threat in her existence ever in history after the Nigerian civil war, all attributed to the Boko Haram insurgency. So many lives have been lost due to this ugly situation. Accusations and counter accusations by various personalities, government functionaries and political parties have not yielded any positive result. It is obvious that undocumented migration and border control has not been taking into account in the process of handling the problem [18]. Field Survey [16] pointed out that the entire West African sub-region has been inundated with small arms and ammunitions which have in turn increased serious crimes in the region [16].

It Fuels Electoral Violence and Crisis in Nigeria

It is surprising that those civic responsibilities such as voting during elections that are meant exclusively for citizens are carried out by illegal immigrants in Nigeria. For instance, Odunsi (2014) reported that the Nigerian Immigration Service (NIS) apprehended and repatriated 430 undocumented immigrants in Jigawa State between January and November 2014. It was also reported that permanent Nigerian voter cards were seized from nationals of Niger who entered illegally into Nigeria. Amongst those arrested, 90% of them were from Niger Republic while others were from Cameroun, Chad and Mali [16].

Nigerian Economy Continues to Wallow in Misfortunes and Doldrums 

It is unfortunate that illegal immigrants can stay in Nigeria for so many years, working in all sectors of the economy without being detected by security agencies. About 120 illegal immigrants were arrested and paraded by Nigeria Immigration Service, Kwara State Command, for not having valid documents while a 21-year-old Musa Isa, from Niger Republic, who lived in the Nigeria for over ten years, stated that his major mission to Kwara State, Nigeria was to work and get money to feed and later marry [16].

Illegal Circulation of Small Arms and Weapons in the Country 

Statistics from experts and international organizations indicate that there are many immigrants in Nigeria who entered the country since the beginning of the 20th century. Research has revealed that undocumented migrants in the north eastern part of Nigeria have invented several ways of smuggling prohibited good in and out of the region. According to Musa (2013) these deadly migrants have created many techniques of ensuring easy border-crossing, mainly by clandestine passageways, since weapons are small, light and collapsible; backs of donkeys, Camels and cows are used arms carriers into Nigeria. Similarly, arms are hidden in grains usually conveyed in large number via trucks, trailers, Lorries and old model pickup vans and jeeps which is unsuspected by security agents [16].

Renders the Country’s Borders Highly Porous to Dangerous Threats

The nature of porous borders at the sea or the Niger Delta has made possible the trade of oil for weapons as a major business cherish and fiercely guided by the beneficiaries [19]. The porous nature of our borders has also given an edge to the dreaded Boko Haram fighters which has been blamed for many lost of lives and property in Nigeria. These various walk paths are very difficult to be checked by law enforcement agents. It is obvious that that the irresistible fight against harmful goods through land, waterways or high seas in the creeks into the country will definitely affect the successful fight against terrorism in the country [16]

Table 1: Socio-demographic Data of Respondents Gender

Table 2: Age

Table 3: Marital Status

Table 4: Educational Qualifications

Table 5: Employment Status

Source: Field Research Survey, 2019.

Table 6: Distribution of foreign nationals by nationality, from 1963, 1991 and 2006 Censuses

Source: (UN Population Division, 2009).

Table 7: Nigeria’s population, 2006–2020

Source: (Population of Nigeria 1950 -2020 by Simona Varrella, September 8, 2020).

At present, most African borders are managed in such a way that easily allows arms/ammunitions and criminals to freely move across them. Meanwhile, poor management of these borders has been a major trigger of insecurity in the state. In the process, the porous nature of Nigeria’s border with all her neighbouring states has made illegal cross-border activities and undocumented migration possible, thereby contributing immensely to the worsening state of insecurity in the country. Therefore, in order to enhance African border security, a number of far-reaching measures must be undertaken. These include adopting appropriate legal and organizational frameworks, improving infrastructure and adequately equipping personnel and border posts, effectively exchanging information and data, improving conditions of local communities and integrating them into border management initiatives, and clearly demarcating international borders among others. The research would definitely guide the Nigerian government as well other neighbouring states on how to go about in reforming and repositioning their border security; population-management institutions; and to discourage all sorts of illegal and undocumented migration menace in Africa.

Recommendations

Pursuant to the forgoing, recommendations are offered on how to curtail the menace so as to ensure perfect border security in Nigeria.

• There is need for cross-fertilization of ideas and strategies between Nigeria and others states in Africa on how to fight illicit activities and undocumented migration through her borders. There is need adopting an interdiction process which means the strategic efforts of disrupting all illegal movements across all Nigerian borders. And there is need to reinforce and encourage joint cross-border patrols between neighboring States. Also, the Nigerian government should a means of deterrence executed thoroughly to convince the would-be smugglers, criminals, or terrorists not to attempt to illegally cross borders

• The Nigerian security agencies should compulsorily exploit a networked security intelligence contributing to and using shared intelligence information across national boundaries

• The Nigerian security agencies that mandated to ensure border control should unfailingly be provided with the required equipment and logistics to effectively execute their jobs

• In the same vein, the various agencies or institutions that are in charge of population management and national identity should carry out a thorough verification of the nation’s population in the next census to know those who are truly foreigners, illegal ones and the process in which they find themselves into the country

• Also, the Nigerian government should strive to encourage or put in place some local security formations: the civilian joint task force, and vigilante groups who are the locals and endowed with adequate security knowledge of their terrain to assist in border security and control

• Nigerian government should endeavour to strengthen collaboration, co-operation and co-ordination at the national level between law enforcement officials, immigration and customs services to ensure a more efficient and effective approach to managing the flow of goods and people across borders

• The states in Africa should hurriedly adopt the usage of comprehensive data collation systems on smuggling activities to assist in the tracking and sharing of information on the actual trends, patterns and changing nature of smuggling routes; and at the same time establishment of databases on arrested and convicted smugglers simultaneously

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