The Niger Delta has for over five decades been the epicentre of oil and gas exploration and exploitation activities. Hydrocarbon resources; crude oil and gas have been the pivot of the Nigerian economy since the 1970s. Oil related activities have had local detrimental and significant adverse impacts on the environment; flora and fauna in the Niger Delta. As a result, the Niger Delta has for over three decades been the focus of both national and international discourses. The Niger Delta consists of saline mangrove swamps that stretches through the coastal areas with 504, 800 hectares (95%) in the Niger Delta and 95,000 hectares (5%) in Akwa-Ibom state [1] The mangrove forests rank the largest in Africa and third largest in the world [2]. The major rivers in the region include the Niger River, which forms the delta, Kwa Iboe River, Cross River and Imo River. Others are, Benin River, Escravos River, Forcados River, Ramos River, Dodo River, Pennington River, Digatoro River, Bengatoro River, Kulama River, Fishtown River, Nun River, Brass River, St. Nicholas River, Santa Barbara River, San Bartholomew River, Sombreiro River, Bonny River and Andoni River. The region is very rich in aquatic resources with high diversity and abundance of over 200 species of fishes [1,3.4]. It has more species of freshwater fishes (197) than any other coastal ecosystem in West Africa [5]. These wetlands provide a cheap and common source of animal protein for most of its inhabitants [6]. Previous studies have revealed that about 16 of the 200 species of fishes found in the Niger Delta have been identified as endemic to the region, while another 29 are near endemic [7,8]. The Niger Delta, hitherto, was historically and geographically clearly delineated but due to vested interests, the region’s definition has been mutated over the years. This has made its definition of recent rather problematic. Historically, the Niger Delta is defined as the area bounded by the Benin River in the West, Imo River in the East, Aboh in the North and in the South, Palm Point at Akassa [9,10,11]. The geographical co-ordinates, of the region is between Aboh 05⁰ 33´ 49” N; 06⁰ 31´ 37” E in the north and Palm Point 04⁰ 16´ 22” N; 06⁰ 05´ 27” E in the south;  the  east-west  limit  stretches  from  Benin   River estuary 05⁰ 44’ 11” N, 05⁰ 44´ 49” E in the west to Imo River estuary 04⁰ 27´ 16” N, 05⁰ 35´ 27´” E in the east [12]. As such, historically and geographically, the Niger Delta region comprised presently, of Bayelsa, Delta and Rivers States. Linguistically, ethnographically and culturally, the pre-crude oil Niger Delta, comprised a mix of ethnic groups; Ijoid, Yoruboid, Edoid, Igboid and Delta Cross, with each embracing vast plethora of ethno-linguistic communities [13]. 

The region has four ecological zones; Low land Area 7,400km², Fresh Water Swamp 11,700 km², Salt Water Swamp 5,140 km² and Sand Barrier Islands 1,140 km² making a total area of 25,640 km² [14]. However, the oil industry defined the Niger Delta at the 7^th World Petroleum Congress in Mexico, as, the area southward from Benn, where oil and gas occur in commercial quantities [15]. Politically, the petroleum industry definition appears to have found favour with the Nigerian State, thus, it metamorphosed into OMPADEC in 1992 and in 1999, the NDDC. For in Part 1 Subsection 2(1), of the Act establishing the Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) 1999, the Niger Delta is synonymously, defined as, the nine oil producing states; Akwa-Ibom, Bayelsa, Delta, River, Ondo, Edo, Cross Rivers, Imo and Abia States of Nigeria¹.

The rich alluvial soils of the region and the copious fresh and salt water bodies have made agriculture; farming and fishing the core livelihoods of the people. Agriculture is the core activity of rural people [16]. Besides being the source of income and employment [17], it is an antidote to environmentally induced conflicts and thus, source of peace among rural people [18,19,20]. Indeed, as, a deltaic region with a massive rural population, agriculture is the basis of life sustenance in the region. To the Niger Delta people especially women, agriculture is an unbreakable source of life sustenance. However, decades of oil activities have negatively impacted the physical environment, threatening the subsistent peasant economy, the livelihood and survival of the people. 

The situation of the region was captured by UNDP Report [21], when it stated that due to mass poverty, the region would be unable to meet the 2015 Millennium Development Goals’ targets despite its stupendous oil wealth. This not a surprise because the Niger Delta has been variously described as “the paradox of plenty”, “the oil of poverty”, “the antinomies of wealth” [22], “the resource curse” and “Dutch dieses”, arising from the contrast between the vast wealth of the Niger Delta and its enduring human poverty. Several studies [23] have in the past reported the severe and harmful effects of crude oil on the environment. 

The results of these studies are not unconnected with the manner that oil operations have been conducted in the region. Oil operations in the region have been carried out with little regard for the environment, as such, unabated spillage of huge volumes of oil and massive gas flaring has been closely linked to oil operations in the region. The acute and chronic oil pollution arising from these spills have led to depletion of environmental resources due to death of organisms, either immediately or with time [24].

The primary data for this study were collected using the method of triangulation; structured close-ended questionnaire schedule, focus group discussions and open-ended target interviews. The secondary data sources include; newspapers, magazines, reports and documents. The primary data were obtained from a sample survey, in-depth target interview schedules (ITI), comprising of youths, opinion leaders and traditional leaders and three focus group discussion sessions (FGD). The sample sizes were: sample interviewee (SI) 150 (Bayelsa 29, Delta 71 and Rivers 50), 30 in-depth target interviewees (ITI) (10 youths (YM), 10 opinion leaders (OL) and 10 traditional leaders (TL). The size of the focus group discussants (FGD) was made-up of 8 persons each. All the research interviews and discussion sessions took place between February and September 2008.The focus group discussions investigated the knowledge, attitudes and operational ethics of the oil companies and consequence of intra-communal conflicts. The research was conducted in Nembe, Beyelsa state, Afiesere, Delta state and Okrika, Rivers state. In addition, some experts (scholars, scientists and engineers) knowledgeable in the oil industry in the Niger Delta were also interviewed. 

The research questions were intended to elicit reaction to impacts of oil activities in oil-host communities. They include: patterns of livelihood; impacts of oil activities on the environment; common problems in oil-host communities; common sources of oil spills in the community; impacts of oil gas flares on crop production; impacts of oil gas flares on fish stocks; nexus between oil activities and income.

The ages of the 150 survey respondents are quite varied and were categorised into five sets and the distribution of their ages are: - 30–39 (12, 8%); 40–49 (18, 12%); 50–59 (24, 16%); 60–69 (39, 26%); 70–79 (57, 38%) respectively. It was also composed of males 123 (82%) and females 27 (18%). The 24 target interviewees (TI) are categorised into three age sets, distributed as follows: - 40–39 (8, 33%); 50–59 (13, 54%); 60–69 (3, 13%) and made up of males 19 (79%) and females 5 (21%). 

Oil Activities and the Niger Delta Environment 

The environment has been described as; “the complex of physical, chemical and biotic factors that acts upon an organism or an ecological community and ultimately determines its form and survival”. The environment is vital for human wellbeing because economically, it is a financial capital asset; damages therefore, run down its capital reducing the value of its recurrent services. The link between poverty and environment is often mentioned in the “sustainable development” debate, but is seldom systematically explored [25]. In the literature the “vicious circle” between poverty and degradation is the focus of the nexus; the circle is Malthusian; farmers, pushed by population increase and poverty, extend cropping onto marginal fragile lands, degrading them. This reduces yields leading to further impoverishment [26]. The focus on the vicious circle of poverty and degradation implies that poverty alleviation will necessarily reduce environmental degradation, and inversely, arrest and reverse environmental decline, thus, helping the poor [27]. However, oil impacted environments are difficult to salvage, as, it takes between 15 to 20 years for oil impacted areas to be put to any use again, including agriculture [28]. 

The Niger Delta area is the twelfth richest area in oil resources in the world [29]. Its massive oil deposits have generated an estimated $600 billion since 1960s [30]. Nigeria has as of January 2015 an estimated 37 billion barrels of proven crude oil reserves and produces 2.40 million bbl/d [31]. In the agricultural sector, informed assessment suggests it has very huge rich potentials [32]. Its soil has rich deltaic deposits that make it very fertile. The soil can effectively support a variety of crops that ordinarily could not grow well in some other parts of the country. The rich alluvial soil of the delta coupled with copious web of fish and salt water bodies provide the necessary incentives for the people to engage predominantly in agricultural activities; farming and fishing. UNDP report shows that 60% of the population depends on the natural, living and non-living resources of the environment for livelihood. The region due to its huge oil resources and its vast agricultural potentials was thought to hold huge economic advantage over other regions. However, oil production activities in the Niger Delta have over the years resulted in diverse environmental hazards with concomitant effects on livelihood patterns and economics of the people. Such hazards include; oil spillage, gas flaring, gas leakage, erosion, as well as water and air pollution. Impacts of oil activities on the environment have acutely inhibited the region’s agricultural potentials. This has made bleak, the people hitherto traditional patterns of livelihoods prior the advent of oil. This is not surprising, as it has been suggested that effective agricultural practices are critical for poverty reduction [33]. The mode of oil operations in the Niger Delta appears perplexing, as, peculiarly, they have involved unabated oil spills and huge gas flares. The oil companies it was asserted engage in unsustainable environmental practices [34] and deploy mostly obsolete equipment for oil operations [35]. Studies have shown that gas flaring impact micro-climate and vegetation [36] soil, air and water quality and human health [37]. It is therefore not surprising that during the survey, oil spillage and gas flares topped the core problems identified by respondents Table 1. These two sources of environmental despoliation are here isolated for brief discussion to show their ramifications and severity on agricultural practices and hence food security in the region.

Table 1: Environmental problems in order of importance

Field Survey About 56.6 million cubic metres of gas is flared in the region daily [38]. This volume of gas translates to about 17.2 billion cubic metres of gas annually; about 16% of the world’s total gas [39]. Based on per tonne of oil produced, Nigeria flares the most gas in the world [40]. Gas flares in Niger Delta averaged 97% from 1970-1979, 97% from 1980 - 1989, 95% from 1990 - 1999 and 51% from 2000 - 2004. The gas flares averaged 76% from 1970 – 2004; thus, daily, approximately, 70 million/m3 of gas is flared. This is equivalent to 40% of African gas consumption and the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. The flares emit massive heat with temperatures often reaching 1,6000C [41]. Indeed, in Isoko, Delta State, temperature of about 4000C was recorded at an average distance of 43.8 metres from flare sites [42]. This high level of gas flare has for long generated concern among scholars [43]. Varied studies have shown that gas flaring viciously impact the environment [44]. Heat radiating from flares leads to microorganism’s decline [45] soil depletion poor crop yields [46], stunted growth [47], reduced nutritional values [48] and vegetation destruction [36]. There are 134 gas flare sites in the Nigeria 131 of which are scattered across the Niger Delta, Table 2 below. Most respondents in the target interviews and focus group discussions in the three research locations, hold the view that gas flares have negatively impacted on the Niger Delta environment. Similar view is also shared by about 80% of the survey respondents, Figure 1.

Figure 1:  Impact of Gas Flare on Oli-host Communities

Source: Created by author from field data

Table 2: Sites of Gas Flares and Numbers

*Gas Gathering Project

A major area identified by the people where gas flares have impacted negatively on the environment in the Niger Delta is food production. The pervasiveness of this notion in the Niger Delta is clearly manifested by the fact that about 76% of the survey respondents hold the view that gas flares have led to the reduction of crop production in the region, Figure 2.

Figure 2:  Impact of Gas Flare on Crop Production

Source: Created by author from field data

Gas flaring is considered illegal in most countries of the world; it occurs only in circumstances, such as unplanned maintenance, disruption to the processing system or emergency shutdowns. Oil operations in the Niger Delta has been associated with incessant flaring of massive gas quantities across the region Table 3. 

Table 3: Records of Oil Spills in Nigeria, 1976 – 2005 

Source: Compiled based on data obtained from Department of Petroleum Resources [54,59]

The surfeit of gas flaring sites has had acute adverse impacts on the environment. The flares generate extreme temperatures that heat up everything around it. They also emit cocktail of toxins CO₂, VOC, CO, NO_x, H₂S and particulates [49] around the clock. These have caused grave harm to the environment, especially on plants, wildlife as well as on humans in the region. Massive gas flaring has continued unabated despite the plethora of laws on environmental protection. The observance of environmental laws mainly in the breach by the oil companies led to Robinson assertion that in the Niger Delta, oil is nothing but a “curse”. 

Aside gas flares, incessant events of oil spills and the huge volumes involved has constituted another major source of environmental despoilment in the Niger Delta. The records from the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR), showed that from 1976 to 2005 about 3, 121, 909.8 barrels of crude oil was spilled in 9,107 incidents in the region Table 2). In the opinion of independent researchers however, this volume is awfully trivial [50]. Decades of unabated oil spillages it seems have had adverse impact on the environment, as shown by the Powell and White, impact assessment of the 1983 Oshika oil spill. The study revealed that the incident killed both floating and submerged aquatic fauna; water lettuce, crabs, and fish. Other studies have also shown that crude oil causes the death of even birds beside crabs and fish [48,50]. Additionally, crude oil also reduces soil fertility, smothers or kills crops, reduces yield and causes 60% reduction in household food security. It also reduces quality of food crops; the ascorbic acid content of waterleaf was reduced by 36%, crude oil reduced the protein content of cassava by 40%.

Indeed, release of petroleum hydrocarbons into the environment, whether accidentally or due to anthropogenic activities, is a major cause of water and soil pollution. Evidence from the author’s field data shows several spills were not cleaned months or even years after they occurred. For instance, a spill that occurred at Epubu community in December 1998 was not cleaned up until a year after. Also, at Aleibiri community, a spill that occurred in March 1997 was only attended to, 8 months after, following youth’s protests. Another example is the case of Akenfa and Ogboloma communities where spills that occurred in October 1995 were cleaned December of the following year. The effect of these unattended spills is the worsening of ecological devastation, in addition to other immediate social economic effects. In fact, a spill that occurred at Osima creek in Agbakabiriyai, near Nembe on February 28, 1998 ignited a fire that lasted for eight days and razed the entire community. The fire destroyed over 400 houses, and displaced about 130,000 persons. It appears however, that the effect of oil on the aquatic environment is even much severe that those earlier stated.

Also, two independent studies in 1997 revealed that total petroleum hydrocarbons in most streams in the Niger Delta are between 360 and 680 times higher than the European Union’s permissible levels. The high concentration of hydrocarbons in streams in the region may not be unconnected with the severe oil pollution from oil spills into the environment Table 4. It is therefore not surprising that the incessant oil spillages into the environment have led to pollution of the ecosystem with adverse impact on biodiversity; fish stock and marine lives in the region.  The impacts of oil activities on the Niger Delta environment have been rather widespread because oil in the region is strewn in small pools throughout almost the entire region, unlike the Persian Gulf and North Sea areas, where oilfields are concentrated mainly offshore. As, a result, oil exploitation and exploitation activities have led to the establishment of oil and gas facilities in almost every corner of the region. Crude oil spill has either acute or chronic toxicity, or a combination of both, on soil properties and micro-flora.

Table 4: Some Severely Oil Polluted Sites in the Niger Delta

Source: FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEEP-IUCN 2006 Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project.

Implications of Oil Activities on Food Security in the Niger Delta 

Food security is the accessibility of all people, at all times, to enough food for an active and healthy life (Reutlinger, 1987). Food security has two aspects; ensuring that adequate food supplies are available, and that households whose members suffer from under nutrition have the ability to acquire food, either by producing it themselves or by being able to purchase it. Food insecurity on the other hand, refers to deficits or shortfalls in actual per capita daily calorie intake below the minimum per calorie intake recommended by Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) and World Health Organisation (WHO) for maintaining the human body-2450kcal/day. The concept of food security requires that resources not only exist, but that they are also available to the people. 

Agricultural practices were hitherto the dominant economic activities and the main source of livelihoods in the Niger Delta. Agricultural practices; farming and fishing account for 90% of all forms of activities and employs about 50% to 68% of the active labour force. But farming methods are subsistent with over 90% of the farmers deploying traditional farming practices using basic tools. The main crops grown in the region are; oil palm, rubber, raffia palm, mango and coconut. Others include cassava, yam, plantain, banana, cocoyam, tomato and pepper. Cassava, yam and plantain are staple food items in the region. Most rural dwellers usually use locally fabricated cassava mills copious in rural communities to process cassava into garri, the main staple food in Southern Nigeria and other by products such as starch, akpu and tapioca. 

Since the advent of crude oil in 1956 to date, about nine out of every ten rural dwellers in the Niger-Delta oil communities live in poverty and gross livelihood insecurity. This may not be unconnected with the dearth of agricultural practices due to the negative impacts of oil activities on the environment. This is because in developing countries, the rural economy is anchored on agriculture. Hence Thurlow opined that the linchpin for improving the quality of human life is agriculture through sustenance of the supporting ecosystem carrying capacity. According to the field survey, main patterns of livelihood in the region’s oil communities are fishing, farming, hunting and craft making in that order Figure 3.

Figure 3: Patterns of Livelihoods in the Niger Delta

Source: Emuedo (2010)

Fig 3 shows that about 93% of the people of the Niger Delta depend on the natural environment (fishing 37%, farming 34%, hunting 15%, craft making 9%) for their livelihoods; while very few are involved in other activities. Thus, dwindling agriculture has adverse impact on the peoples’ well-being. This is because dwindling agricultural practices will lead to paucity of food production and food scarcity. Food insecurity results in human suffering arising from ineffective income earning. The effects of oil pollution on the environment on agriculture in the Niger Delta have been widely acknowledged. This has led to poor crop yield and severe food production deficit in the region Table 2. It has also led to the deployment of more areas to cultivation of food crops in oil-host communities. Indeed, Ojimba and Iyaba reported that more hectares of land are deployed for farm crop cultivation in oil producing communities than in non-oil producing areas. They reported that 454.61 hectares of farm lands were cultivated in oil producing areas, compared to 347.10 hectares in non-oil producing areas. Moreover, more people 454 are engaged in crop farming in oil producing areas compared to 316 in non-oil producing areas. Despite this increase in the hectares and number of people farming in oil-host communities, there were higher and better yields in the non-oil producing areas than in oil producing areas. A major complaint by the people during the field work centred on their stifled financial status arising from poor farm yields, due to soils infertility from environmental despoilment. There are two major sources of environmental despoilment in the Niger Delta; crude oil pollution from spillages and gas flaring. Crude oil pollution has acute adverse impact on farm crops. It takes 15 to 20 years for soils impacted by crude oil to be suitable for agriculture again [51]. Signs of oil pollution were quite visible during the field work. For instance, it was observed that most farm crops lacked the decidedly luxuriant green colour usually associated with plants in the rain forest zone. Also, the physiological structure of the crops does not show sign of healthy growth; they seemed stressed in the extreme. Such crops as observed are not expected to produce much yield. According to Udo and Oputa [52] a major associated effect of oil pollution of the environment is changes in soil properties. These include decrease in soil water holding capacity, loss of soil structure, exclusions of air from the soil, and production of hydrogen sulphide, among other changes. All these changes adversely affect plant growth [52]. Oil pollution either destroys or retards plants growth; severity of impact increases with the volume of oil in the soil. Seeds planted in oil polluted soils generally absorb the oil and get destroyed. Oil spills also lead to loss of farm lands and deforestation. This shortens fallow periods, leads to soil infertility, which results in poor quality and reduced. As, Osuji and Onojake stated, the high presence of oil in soil deprives the soil of oxygen, leading eventual death of soil fauna from asphyxiation. Crude oil also inhibited the germination and growth of Abelmoschus esculentus, (okra), a vegetable widely grown in the region; leading to poor crop yield. Thus, the respondents’ assertion appears largely right as poor crop yield would lead to low income hence their impoverishment. According to Udo and Fayemi a 4.2% crude oil pollution level reduced germination and yield of maize crop (Zea mays L.) by an average of 50% and 92% respectively. A study by Inoni et al.  showed that oil pollution depresses crop yield, hence farmers income. They asserted that an oil spill of about 10% reduces crop yield by about 1.5% and plummet farm income by over 5%. Overtly, oil pollution has been shown to have adversely impacted cocoyam (Colocasis esculenta), yam (Discoroea spp), pineapple (Ananas comosus), cassava (Manihot esculenta), banana (Musa sp), pepper (Piper spp.), okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) and waterleaf.

Also reported the virtual extinction of certain fauna and flora; edible frog (Okhere), small red cray fish (Iku-ewhewhe), iguana (Ogborigbo) and cocoyam (Idu). Thus, oil spillages have far reached effects on the agricultural output of an affected area and concomitant multiplier effects on the socio-economic well–being of the people. In addition to oil pollution, farm yields in the Niger Delta are further exacerbated by the effects of gas flaring. About 75 % of the associated gas produced in the region is flared; representing a pollution equivalent to 45 million tons of CO₂ daily [53]. The general belief in the Niger Delta is that food crops cultivated close to gas flare sites produce lower yields and, in their opinion, are even not as rich, as, those planted far was from gas flares. Studies by Salau [54] and Adeyomo established the relationship between gas flaring and decline in food crop production in the Niger Delta. The study reported a 10% decrease in crop yield at a distance of 1000 metres, 45% decrease at a distance of 600 metres and 100% yield loss at a distance of 200 metres from a gas flare point Table 4. In addition, Odjugo reported that gas flaring reduced the yield of egusi melon (Citrusllus Lanatus) a popular seed vegetable commonly grown by farmers in the Niger Delta, by 85.7%, 82.1%, 75%, and 32% at 500m, 1 km, 2km, and 5 km respectively.

Myriad studies have linked gas flaring to low agricultural production in the region, thus, impairing livelihoods and incomes [50,51,52]. Specifically, studies have shown that gas flaring reduced the yield of sweet potato (Ipomea batatas), cassava/yam at over 2km distance from flare sites. It is admitted here that oil spills and gas flaring are not unconnected with the oil industry elsewhere in the world. The salient point however, is that the operations of the oil companies (volume of oil spills and gas flaring) in the Niger Delta are not in conformity with acceptable international standards. It was observed that the oil companies operating in the Niger Delta use the “open pipe flare” method that degrades the environment, due to its huge soot generation; and considered obsolete to flare gas, instead of the “ground open flare” with Sand Banks that is more environment friendly and used in all other African oil producing countries, Europe, Canada and America. Another factor that has also impeded agricultural practices and stunted incomes in the Niger Delta is quantity of land sequestered by the oil companies for oil activities. Oil activities without even its attendant negative effects are a hindrance to the availability of arable land for agriculture in the Niger Delta. A study carried out in 1995 revealed that between 1992 and 1993 land area under food crop production in Bayelsa, Rivers and Delta states decreased by 41.7% and 15% in 1995. This is occasioned by land sequestration for oil activities. Besides further constricting women access to land, this has led to increase in land fragmentation and decline in crop production in the Niger Delta. It is a well-known fact that arising from its topography, land is scarce in the Niger Delta and scarcer still is arable land. For instance, it is estimated that of the 2,185,000 hectares that is the land area of Rivers and Bayelsa states about half of it is swamp land which hampers agriculture. In Delta state, of 1,769, 800 hectares, which represent its total land area, about a third are similarly swamps. Thus, continuous loss of land to oil spillage and other oil-related activities is basically the destruction of women’s means of livelihood. Another related factor that has also impeded food production and agriculture in general is the land sequestered for oil activities by the oil companies. For instance, about 7.7 hectares of land is required to site an oil well and a helipad. Also, land is also needed to construct access road, pipelines, borrow pits, waste disposal sites and seismic lines. As such, across the region, oil communities have lost much of erstwhile farm lands to oil activities. To get a glimpse of the huge land requirement for oil operations, in the Niger Delta the situation of Okrika, Table 7 typifies situation in all oil communities in the region. About 818.08 hectares of land was lost by the community to oil activities, and this deprived over 900 women of farm lands [51]. Land sequestration to oil activities has therefore, become a major concern in the region because with new oil find, more wells would be drilled and land for agricultural activities would accordingly reduce. The picture of arable land lost to oil activities would be clearer, when we put into perspective the fact that the Niger Delta today harbours a massive oil infrastructure. Presently, the Niger Delta hosts about 6, 284 oil wells, 257 flow stations, over 7000km of oil and gas pipelines in land area of about 31,000 sq km, 10 oil terminals, 2 petroleum institutions, 10 gas plants, 30 marginal oil field operated by local oil companies; located in 1,500 communities [56]. The land required for these activities including staff housing by the oil companies have put over-bearing stress on available land for agriculture in the region [50]. The aquatic environment has also not been spared constant pollution from oil activities. Various studies [53] have shown the negative impact of oil pollution on the marine environment. Oil pollution of the aquatic environment leads to poor water quality [54] and this has impacted adversely    on   fishing  in   the region. Oil pollution of the mangrove ecosystem has caused damage to aquatic life, changes in water quality [54] and radically disrupted the ecological balance of the mangrove ecosystem. The mangrove, ecosystem which constitutes the basic nursery for aquatic species has drastically reduced. Several studies have shown that water quality impacts on species composition, assemblages and distribution of plankton, benthos and fish. As a result, most fish ponds in the region have been abandoned as they have become uneconomical to harvest or maintain. Indeed, most of the survey respondents acknowledge the fact that impacts of oil pollutions in the region has resulted in the dramatic reduction of fish stocks in the Niger Delta, as shown on Table 8. Field survey Indeed, numerable flora and fauna in the Niger Delta have been negatively impacted that some of them are now virtually extinct in Table 9. Thus, in the Niger Delta, changes in the environment due to oil activities have inhibited agricultural practices; leading to occupational disorientation and constriction of food production.

Table 5: Estimated yield and demand for some food crops in the coastal wetlands of the Niger Delta in 2010

Table 6: Gas Flares and Crop Yield in the Niger Delta 

Source: Salau [54]

Table 7: Arable land area lost to oil related activities in Okrika LGA, Rivers State (Ha)

Source: Salau, 1993; Emuedo  [54,59]

Table 8: Impact of Oil Activities on Fish Catches in the Niger Delta 

Table 9: Effects of oil pollution on sampled flora and fauna of the Niger Delta 

Source: Emuedo, [59]

Until the advent of oil, a delicate balance existed between the people of the Niger Delta and its fragile ecosystem. Exploitation of natural resources was in the main, rudimentary and did not go beyond the search for medicinal herbs, fuel, game, fish and construction materials. Environmental sustainability was maintained as available resources outmatched the needs of the people. Today, the Niger Delta environment has changed and continues to change rapidly. Oil and gas activities have infringed on the people and their environment, leading to the opening up of previously pristine ecosystems. This has resulted in alteration of habitats, biodiversity loss, deforestation and pollution. While natural hazards are responsible for some impacts on the environment, oil activities have no doubt aggravated the situation. Thus, there is a strong feeling in the region that the degree and rate of degradation is pushing the region towards an ecological disaster. Indeed the effects of oil activities have resulted in pervasive poverty in the region with concomitant negative effects on the health and food security of the people. The environmental condition being precipitated by oil activities in the Niger Delta is such that, it destroys the sociological foundation of the existence of the people. Petroleum contamination and environmental degradation associated with exploitation and production of petroleum resources has clearly impacted the natural environment, human health, physical and socio–economic environments in the Niger Delta. In addition, unsustainable operational practices by the multinational oil companies and the ineffective government's petroleum development policies has led to more socio–economic problems and complex environmental degradation in the Niger Delta. Although it is becoming increasingly apparent to the multinational oil companies that pollution prevention pays, petroleum exploration and production environmental issues discussed in this review are widespread in oil–producing host communities in the Niger Delta. In order to achieve sustainable development, both the government and the multinational oil companies need to adopt environmentally friendly approach and technologically advanced production operations that minimizes the associated environmental pollution. Adoption of effective sustainable reforms will encourage responsible petroleum exploration and production activities in ways that will positively influence economic development of host communities and protect human and environmental health in the near and long term.

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