Climate change is a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate change is one of the most challenging and complex problems facing humanity, and it is likely to have consequences for human development and human security [1,2]. Its significant effects on the level of productivity of the rural farmers in   developing countries cannot be overemphasised [3,4,5]. The fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) shows that climate change is likely to have a significant effect on agricultural production in many African countries and this may likely cause reduce farm yields; the reduction could be as much as 50% by 2020, and there might be fall in net crop revenues by 2100 [6,7].

Climate change and its effects are currently manifesting in every sphere of human endeavour and its effects on farming activities can never be over-emphasised [8,9]. The agricultural sector through which food is made available for nations has been neglected and left in the hands of some few, majority of who are in rural areas [10,11]. The efforts of the few, most especially in the developing nations who are currently into farming profession are being hampered by the hardship which climate change has brought to farming activities [12,13]. Agricultural sector is currently experiencing a big set-back globally due to the negative effects which climate change has on it. Sea levels are rising because of high temperatures, glacial retreat and increased rainfall in some areas [14,15]. A rise in the sea level results in an agricultural land loss. Erosion, submergence of shorelines, salinity of the water table due to the increased sea level mainly affect agriculture through inundation of low-lying lands [16,17]. The soil nutrient is being swept away by erosion day-by-day, making the available soil barren. Planting seasons have become extremely difficult to predict due to anomalies in weather condition. Farmers now experience extreme droughts, floods, short period of harmattan, short period of raining season, excessive heats proliferation of pests and diseases (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), [18,19]. The features associated with climate change as it is seeming to threaten farmers' output level and climate is the primary determinant of agricultural productivity. In this respect, climate and level of productivity is fundamentally interlinked. This is why whatever happens within the agricultural systems can be said to depend on climate change.   

Objectives and Hypotheses of the Study

• The study investigates the knowledge of rural farmers in Ondo State, Nigeria about climate change

• it identifies the effects of climate change on their outputs

• it investigates farmers' attitude towards climate change in the study area. 

The study hypothesized that there is no significant relationship between farmers’ level of socioeconomic characteristics and their knowledge of climate change; and, there is no significant relationship between the effect of climate change and the farmers’ level of productivity.

The researcher used cross sectional survey design in investigating farmers’ knowledge about climate change, its effect(s) and their attitude towards climate change in Ondo North senatorial district, Ondo State, Nigeria. The proposed sample size for this study is 400 farmers who are presently farming within senatorial district. Multistage sampling technique was adopted for the selection of the respondents. In the first stage, four local government areas (LGAs) were purposively selected: Akoko Southwest, Akoko Northeast, Owo and Ose. This was followed by the selection of one agricultural community each from Akoko Southwest and Akoko Northeast LGAs, while one farm settlement each was selected from Owo and Ose LGAs. The division of the selected farm-communities and farm settlement into blocks was done using a systematic sampling method. The researcher employed questionnaire for data collection. Four hundred (400) copies of the questionnaire were administered to farmers who fell under our sample, using purposive sampling method as follows; Oka Akoko - Akoko Southwest (100), Akunnu Akoko - Akoko Northeast (100), Elegbeka farm settlement - Ose (100) and Ago Paanu - Owo farm settlement (100). The quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics which include percentage distribution, mean and the frequency counts, while the qualitative data collected from the field were summarised, paraphrased and presented in descriptive words, while preserving the original details and meaning as accurately as possible.

Demographic Characteristics of The Respondents   

The respondents’ demographic characteristics show that 226 (57.4%) were males compared to females 168 (42.6%). The respondents’ ages ranged between 18 years and 63 years. Specifically, 18 (4.6%) of the respondents are aged between 18 and 29 years, 82 (20.8%) are aged between 30 and 39 years, 184 (46.7%) are aged between 40 and 49 years, 102 (25.9%) are aged between 50 and 59 years, and 8 (2%) are 60 years and above. This indicates that the respondents are in their active years. In respect to the respondents’ religious affiliation, more than half 233 (59.1%) of the respondents are Christians while 105 (26.6%) are Muslims. Less than 8% (7.4%) of the respondents practiced African Traditional Religion while 27 (6.9%) practiced other forms of religion. In terms of the respondents’ marital status, a large proportion 330 (83.8%) were married compared to 24 (6.1%) who were single. Those who were divorced, separated and widowed were 19 (4.8%), 8 (2%), and 13 (3.3%), accordingly. About 64 (16.2%) of the total respondents had no formal education, 140 (35.5%) had completed primary education, 156 (39.6%) are holders of secondary school certificate, while a minute 34 (8.6%) had tertiary education. These range from Colleges of education, polytechnic and University. The summary of the analysis of the data collected on respondents’ monthly income shows that 14 (3.6%) and 15 (3.8%) of the respondents respectively earn between N 2,500 and N 4,999 and between N 5,000 and N 7,499   while 14 (3.6%) and 351 (89.1%) of the respondents respectively earn between N 2,500 and N 4,999 and lastly N 7,500 and N9,999 each. Thus, a majority (89.1%) of the respondents earn between N 2,500 and N 4,999.

Farmers' Knowledge of Climate Change 

The respondents were asked to respond to a scale containing options relating to their knowledge of climate change and their responses are presented in Table 1. The responses on climate change that have been in existence for years were indifferent, as there were no significantly observed differences in the response [X2 = 0.254, p < 0.05]. Their responses also suggest that 8.6% had little knowledge, 44.4% had moderate knowledge, while 47.0% had much knowledge. Though the respondents did not provide a formal definition of climate change, they mentioned and described indicators of what they considered as climate change. Among the indicators of climate change mentioned are excessive rainfall (48%), increased drought (68.8%), poor yield (80.5%), high wind and heat waves (36%), pest and disease infestation (38.1%), decline in fish infestation (5.8%), cold/ harmattan (19.8%), depletion of soil layer (43.1%) and low rainfall (28.7%).There were several sources through which the respondents acquired knowledge about climate change. The transistor radio constituted the major portability of transistor radio, affordability, and easy maintenance may have accounted for the high response to this source. Interestingly, majority of the respondents, 82.5%, reported to have acquired knowledge about climate change from information received from radio, and 58.37% of them reported that their source of knowledge is from experience. In addition to this, findings from the IDIs showed that the respondents’ knowledge from experience were of two types: First, ‘primary experience’ which is experience acquired from their parents and ‘secondary experience’ which is experience acquired while on-the-job. This finding suggests that knowledge about climate change is transmittable as indicated in the respondents’ response. Respondents who acquired their knowledge from the local daily newspaper printed in local dialect constitute (35.3%), farmer’s cooperative societies (25.4%), extension workers (19.0%), internet (15.7%), researcher (18.0%), and from politicians (1.8%).

Table 1: Chi Square Summary on Statement about Farmers Level and Source of Awareness of Climate Change.

Farmers' Sources of Their Knowledge About Climate Change 

Also, from Table 1, a little above average (58.37%) of the respondents reported that their source of knowledge is from experience. In addition to this, findings from the IDIs showed that the respondents’ knowledge from experience were of two types. First, ‘primary experience’, a knowledge acquired from their parents and ‘secondary experience’, a knowledge acquired while on-the-job. This finding suggests that knowledge about climate change is transmittable as indicated in the respondents’ response. Respondents who acquired their knowledge from the local daily newspaper printed in local dialect constitute 35.3%, farmer’s cooperative societies (25.4%), extension workers (19.0%), internet (15.7%), researchers (18.0%), and from politicians (1.8%). 

An excerpt from one of the IDIs reads thus:  …climate change has been for long, but its manifestation is more telling than before. The source of my knowledge about climate change is from the radio. The availability of reception has made it possible for us local farmers to have access to information on climate (IDI, respondent aged 54).

Effects of Climate Change on Farmers' Level of Productivity 

Table 2 shows the result on general effects of climate change and it indicates that 49% of the respondents said excessive growing of weed which has now increased the number of weeding periods is an effect of climate change. 51% said serious wind that destroys pre-mature crops thereby reducing the number of crops that reach the maturity stage is an effect of climate change. On the possible implications of climate change on their productivity, the findings revealed that 42.1% said reduction in productivity, 37.8% said destruction of seedlings kept for future planting  by insects, which later result in shortage of seeds and seedling available for planting; while 20.1% said rottening of seedlings and yam-set by excessive heat even after planting. The response on the effect of climate change on farm shows that 41.1% said washing away of soil nutrients has a direct impact on whatever they plant, 36.8% said increase in pest and insects, 10.4% said washing away of crops by flood before harvest; while 11.7% choose consumption of cocoa plantation by fire; thus most possible consequence is washing away of soil nutrients by flood (X2 = 124.437, p < 0.05). This finding supports the work of Ozor and Nnaji [20] in which farmers reported in all the FGDs conducted that they had to weed their farm plots more than three times if they were to obtain any meaningful harvest from the farm. They equally agreed to have been experiencing increased pest and disease infestation. These symptoms really support the fact that climatic conditions have changed tremendously. It had been reported that heavier than normal rainfall will lead to increased growth of weeds, increase in erosion due to high rainfall and the indirect effect which include increase in pest and disease build up [21]. The implication of high incidence of weeds on farmlands is that it increases the cost of production through payments for labour or use of herbicides, which is also considered by farmers as significant in the area; it was seen as an indirect effect of increased rainfall intensity, high humidity and warmer environment. An excerpt from one of the IDIs reads thus: …My harvest experiences from the past ten years have not been encouraging. I specialized on cocoa, but I  discovered, there has been a yearly reduction in the number of bags we realized every year. In 2006, I realized six  and half bags, but as I am talking to you now, hardly can I realize three bags this year 2014. And this has been the trend from the past ten years (IDI, respondent aged 54).

Table 2: Chi Square Summary on Statement about Effect of Climate Change.

Yet, another interviewee reported that: …In 2012, I planted 2,500 yam-sets. 2,170 germinated, after two months, there was a fluctuation in rain fall, that led to the rottening of about 410 already germinated ones. During the harvest I was able to realize about 1,760 tubers, among which about 438 tubers have been affected by pests (IDI, respondent aged 39).

Farmers’ Attitude Towards Climate Change 

The result on farmers’ attitude towards climate change as shown in (Table 3) revealed that majority of the respondents (96.4%) had a negative attitude, 87.8% concurred that climate change is a serious issue to them as farmers; the difference is highly significant, as majority of them see climate change as a big issue (X = 225.391, p > 0.05). 84.3% of the respondents’ reaction to climate change is aggressive, while 15.7% were indifference to it. The difference in response on the statement about farmers telling their counterparts who do not know about the changes was not significant (X = 2.599, p > 0.05). Also indifference in response about striving to get more information about climate change by farmers was not significant (X = 1.015, p > 0.05). Majority of the respondents (88.1%) think that it is necessary you take any measure to reduce the effect of climate change you have mentioned above. 40.9% of the respondents agreed that they are still confident of having bountiful yearly harvest despite the change in climate, but majority of the respondents (59.1%) do not think so. Some other areas they think help could come from are; private individuals (13.5%), government (53.6%), farmers’ group (25.4%), and 23.4% did not indicate any possible area. Most of the responding farmers (87.7%) indicated that they had made changes in their farming methods in the expectation of a future climate change. On farmers’ attitude towards climate change, for instance, some respondents’ excerpts read thus; ... I know that climate is changing, and I need to take it seriously. As it has to do with my profession, I try as much as possible to tell other farmers about it because it is something, we need to do everything possible to reduce its bad effects on our outputs. At times, we do invite people outside to come and give us lecture about climate change (IDI, respondents aged 37).

Table 3: Chi Square Summary on Statement regarding Farmers Attitude towards Climate Change.

Hypothesis 1: 

There is no significant relationship between farmers’ level of socio-economic characteristics and their knowledge of climate change the result in Table 4 of the appendixes indicated that gender did not significantly correlate with knowledge of climate change [r (392) = -0.030, p> 0.05]. This implies that the knowledge of climate change does not significantly correspond with gender of respondents. It was indicated that age had a significant negative relationship with knowledge of climate change [r (392) = 0.134, p< 0.05]. This was such that younger respondents had higher knowledge of climate change compared to older ones. The relationship between farming experience and knowledge of climate change was not significant [r (392) = -0.025, p> 0.05], thus indicating that the years or period of experience do not determine the knowledge of climate change. Marital status of respondents had significant relationship with knowledge of climate change [r (392) = -0.187, p< 0.05]. Educational attainment also had a significant relationship with knowledge of climate change [r (392) = 0.393, p< 0.05]. This was such that an increase in educational attainment implies an increase in the respondents’ knowledge of climate change. It was also noted that average monthly income had no significant relationship with knowledge of climate change [r (392) =  -0.093, p > 0.05], such that when there is an increase in an individual’s average monthly income, it does not indicate any change in their knowledge of climate change. These findings imply that farmers’ social economic status relates to their knowledge of climate change in the aspect of age, marital status and educational attainment, but not gender, farming experience and monthly earnings. The result partially confirmed the formulated null hypothesis 1.

Table 4: Summary of Correlation Matrix Showing the Relationship between Social Economic Characteristics and Knowledge of Climate Change.

Note: * p < 0.01, N = 394

Hypothesis 2: 

There is no significant relationship between the effect of climate change and the farmers’ level of productivity the result of the hypothesis 2 as reported in (Table 5) indicated that there was a significant and negative relationship between effect of  climate   change   and productivity level [r (392) = -0.379, p< 0.05]. This was in such a way that when there is an increase in the negative level of climate change, there tends to be a decrease in farmers’ productivity level. The finding negates the formulated null hypothesis 2, thus the hypothesis was rejected.

Table 5: Summary of simple Correlation Showing the Relationship between Effect of Climate Change and Productivity Level.

Through questionnaire interviews and IDIs, Akoko farmers from Ondo North senatorial district generally concurred that in the past rainfalls were more regular and predictable in seasons. Rainfall seasons were distinct, but currently, rainfall has become more unpredictable. The farmers constantly stressed declining agricultural production due to unpredictable rainfall, sometimes incessant rains on the one hand, as well as low rainfall, coupled with high temperatures on the other hand, and the occurrence of extreme climatic events including hailstorms, frost and persistent droughts. The farmers consented that the previous climate as at when they were young was ‘good’ compared to the current climate, which they reported to be ‘bad’. Rainfalls are valued as decreased, while temperature and wind were valued as increased. The respondents recognised long and short season rains based on the rainfall amounts and duration. Farmers explained that rainfalls have reduced in both quantity (amounts per rainfall) and quality (ability of the rains to sustain the crops for a reasonable period to crops maturity) in comparison to the time they were young. Changes in rainfall amount and patterns affect soil erosion rates and soil moisture, both of which are significant for crop yields. In addition, increasing temperatures makes it difficult for the crops to grow with little rains, while increased wind puts crops at risk of being blown away or destroyed before maturity. The pronounced sources of information about climate change are radio and experience. This finding is in line with that of Tologbonse et al. [22] who found out that one of the most important information sources on climate change was radio and personal experience. The effect(s) of climate change on farming activities in Ondo North senatorial district are summarized as follows: increased drought which directly causes poor yield; high wind and heat waves which have been responsible for the destruction of premature crops and multiplication of pest and disease; and depletion of soil layer which has been directly linked to reduction in productivity. These findings are in line with that of George [23] who opines that farmers perceived climate change affects from sustained changes over time in environmental temperatures, rainfall intensity and pattern and also wind variability. The Akoko farmers in Ondo North Senatorial district agreed with the following attitude statements that climate change has been a serious problem to them, as the unpredictability of the change in climate has made farming profession uninteresting, discouraging and unproductive; they were also of the opinion that climate change is affecting their farming negatively and this negative effect(s) make them react to climate change aggressively, by willing to do everything possible to avert or reduce the negative effect it has on farming profession.  Their attitude to climate change can also be measured in the manner at which they go about telling other farmers who might not be as knowledgeable as they are about climate change, the manner at which they strived to gather helpful information that will help at reducing the negative effect of climate change on farming profession. Through questionnaire interviews and IDIs, Akoko farmers from Ondo North senatorial district generally concurred that in the past rainfalls were more regular and predictable in seasons. Rainfall seasons were distinct, but currently, rainfall has become more unpredictable. The farmers constantly stressed declining agricultural production due to unpredictable rainfall, sometimes incessant rains on the one hand, as well as low rainfall, coupled with high temperatures on the other hand, and the occurrence of extreme climatic events including hailstorms, frost and persistent droughts. The farmers consented that the previous climate as at when they were young was ‘good’ compared to the current climate, which they reported to be ‘bad’. Rainfalls are valued as decreased, while temperature and wind were valued as increased. The respondents recognised long and short season rains based on the rainfall amounts and duration. Farmers explained that rainfalls have reduced in both quantity (amounts per rainfall) and quality (ability of the rains to sustain the crops for a reasonable period to crops maturity) in comparison to the time they were young. Changes in rainfall amount and patterns affect soil erosion rates and soil moisture, both of which are significant for crop yields. In addition, increasing temperatures makes it difficult for the crops to grow with little rains, while increased wind puts crops at risk of being blown away or destroyed before maturity. The pronounced sources of information about climate change are radio and experience. This finding is in line with that of Tologbonse et al. [22] who found out that one of the most important information sources on climate change was radio and personal experience. The effect(s) of climate change on farming activities in Ondo North senatorial district are summarized as follows: increased drought which directly causes poor yield; high wind and heat waves which have been responsible for the destruction of premature crops and multiplication of pest and disease; and depletion of soil layer which has been directly linked to reduction in productivity. These findings are in line with that of George [23] who opines that farmers perceived climate change affects from sustained changes over time in environmental temperatures, rainfall intensity and pattern and also wind variability. The Akoko farmers in Ondo North Senatorial district agreed with the following attitude statements that climate change has been a serious problem to them, as the unpredictability of the change in climate has made farming profession uninteresting, discouraging and unproductive; they were also of the opinion that climate change is affecting their farming negatively and this negative effect(s) make them react to climate change aggressively, by willing to do everything possible to avert or reduce the negative effect it has on farming profession.  Their attitude to climate change can also be measured in the manner at which they go about telling other farmers who might not be as knowledgeable as they are about climate change, the manner at which they strived to gather helpful information that will help at reducing the negative effect of climate change on farming profession.

The findings revealed that majority of the farmers in Ondo Senatorial District (100%) had knowledge of climate change, the degree of knowledge is categorised into, low, moderate and high. They acquired the knowledge based on their years of experience in farming profession. This attests to the work of Nyong et al. [24] that the Sahel’ farmers have over the years accumulated sufficient knowledge of climate change and the ways in which the adverse impacts of droughts may be reduced through both mitigation and adaptation. The study also revealed that the effect of climate change on these farmers has not been positive, as majority (51%) of the respondents’ responses showed that, the change in climate had increased the period of weeding unnecessarily, thereby making farming more tedious. Others (36 and 38.1%) see wind, pest and disease infestation which normally destroy most of their crops as one of the effects climate change has on their crops. The farmers (96.4%) in Ondo North Senatorial district agreed that climate is changing, as there are several evidences. The change in climate has not been favourable to agricultural activities and this makes the change in climate to be of great issue to the farmers. The results support the work of Arbuckle et al. [25] which indicate that many Iowa farmers believed that climate change is occurring and steps leading to adaptation should be pursued.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The study therefore recommended that in order to minimise the negative effects of climate change on farmers' outputs:

• government should pay more attention to enlightening the rural farmers through the electronic and print media, most especially radio

• extension services of the Ministry of Agriculture should also be provided to the resource poor farmers in rural areas by the government, particularly information and other packages that will help them adjust and readjust to climate change

• research on climate change and agricultural activities should be encouraged by the government at all levels.

Acknowledgment

The author expresses his appreciation to all members of Akoko Farmers’ Congress in Ondo North Senatorial District for their willingness to be involved in the questionnaire interviews and the prompt attention given to our in-depth interview.

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